Due to limitations of bone autografts and allografts, synthetic bone grafts using osteoconductive biomaterials have been designed. In this study, collagen–chitosan–calcium phosphate microparticle-based scaffolds fused with glycolic acid were compared to their counterparts without collagen in terms of degradation, cytocompatibility, porosity, and Young’s modulus. It was found that 26–30% collagen was incorporated and that hydroxyapatite was present. Moreover, there were no differences between control and collagen scaffolds in degradation, cytocompatibility, porosity, and Young’s modulus. In general, scaffolds exhibited 23% porosity, 0.6–1.2 MPa Young’s modulus, 23% degradation over 4 weeks, and supported a four to seven fold increase in osteoblast cell number over 7 days in culture. Collagen can be incorporated into these bone graft substitute scaffolds, which show an improved degradation profile.
BishopGBEinhornTA. Current and future clinical applications of bone morphogenetic proteins in orthopaedic trauma surgery. [Review]. Int Orthop2007; 31(6): 721–727.
2.
KhanSNCammisaFPJrSandhuHS. The biology of bone grafting. [Review]. J Am Acad Orthop Surg2005; 13(1): 77–86.
3.
BrydoneASMeekDMaclaineS. Bone grafting, orthopaedic biomaterials, and the clinical need for bone engineering. [Review]. Proc IMechE Part H: J Engineering in Medicine2010; 224(12): 1329–1343.
4.
KhanYYaszemskiMJMikosAG. Tissue engineering of bone: material and matrix considerations. [Review]. J Bone Joint Surg Am2008; 90(Suppl. 1): 36–42.
5.
NandiSKRoySMukherjeeP. Orthopaedic applications of bone graft & graft substitutes: a review. [Review]. Indian J Med Res2010; 132: 15–30.
Lynch SEH and Hart CE. Compositions and methods for arthrodetic procedures. Patent 2012/0130435 A1, USA, 2012. Franklin, TN: BioMimetic Therapeutics, Inc.
8.
ChesnuttBMVianoAMYuanY. Design and characterization of a novel chitosan/nanocrystalline calcium phosphate composite scaffold for bone regeneration. [Evaluation Studies]. J Biomed Mater Res Part A2009; 88(2): 491–502.
9.
ChesnuttBMYuanYBuddingtonK. Composite chitosan/nano-hydroxyapatite scaffolds induce osteocalcin production by osteoblasts in vitro and support bone formation in vivo. Tissue Eng Part A2009; 15(9): 2571–2579.
10.
RevesBTBumgardnerJDColeJA. Lyophilization to improve drug delivery for chitosan-calcium phosphate bone scaffold construct: a preliminary investigation. J Biomed Mater Res Part B2009; 90(1): 1–10.
11.
KeavneyTMHHayesWCMechanical properties of cortical and cancellous bone. In: HallBK (eds). Bone. A Treatise: Bone Growth-B1992; Vol. 7. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 285–344.
12.
LeeSHShinH. Matrices and scaffolds for delivery of bioactive molecules in bone and cartilage tissue engineering. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Review]. Adv Drug Delivery Rev2007; 59(4–5): 339–359.
RhoadesRATTannerGA. Medical physiology, Boston, MA: Wilkins LW, 1995.
16.
BumgardnerJDWWiserRGerardPD. Chitosan: potential use as a bioactive coating for orthopaedic and craniofacial/dental implants. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed2003; 14(5): 423–438.
17.
HamiltonVYuanYRigneyDA. Characterization of chitosan films and effects on fibroblast cell attachment and proliferation. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t]. J Mater Sci Mater Med2006; 17(12): 1373–1381.
18.
Kesava ReddyGEnwemekaCS. A simplified method for the analysis of hydroxyproline in biological tissues. Clin Biochem1996; 29(3): 225–229.
19.
McCanless JD, Jennings JA, Bumgardner JD and Haggard WO. Could less mesenchymal stem cells benefit the degenerative nucleus pulposus more? In: 56th Annual Meeting of the Orthopaedic Research Society, New Orleans, LA, 6–9 March 2010. Presentation 1437, Transactions Vol. 36.
ChenYMakAFTWangM. PLLA scaffolds with biomimetic apatite coating and biomimetic apatite/collagen composite coating to enhance osteoblast-like cells attachment and activity. Surf Coat Technol2006; 201(3–4): 575–580.
22.
CiapettiGAmbrosioLSavarinoL. Osteoblast growth and function in porous poly epsilon -caprolactone matrices for bone repair: a preliminary study. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t]. Biomaterials2003; 24(21): 3815–3824.
23.
VictorSKumarT. BCP ceramic microspheres as drug delivery carriers: synthesis, characterisation and doxycycline release. J Mater Sci -Mater Med2008; 19(1): 283–290.
24.
MaoJSZhaoLGYinYJ. Structure and properties of bilayer chitosan-gelatin scaffolds. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t]. Biomaterials2003; 24(6): 1067–1074.
25.
ChesnuttBC. Composite chitosan/calcium phosphate biomaterials for bone tissue engineering, Memphis, TN: University of Memphis, 2008.
26.
Nguyen DT. Design and evaluation of chitosan-calcium phosphate scaffolds constructed from air dried and lyophilized microspheres. MS Thesis, University of Memphis, Memphis, 2010.
27.
WangLStegemannJP. Thermogelling chitosan and collagen composite hydrogels initiated with beta-glycerophosphate for bone tissue engineering. [Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural]. Biomaterials2010; 31(14): 3976–3985.
28.
BoreneMLBarocasVHHubelA. Mechanical and cellular changes during compaction of a collagen-sponge-based corneal stromal equivalent. [Evaluation Studies, Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t, Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S.]. Ann Biomed Eng2004; 32(2): 274–283.
29.
Ravindran SG, Gao Q, Kotecha M, et al. Biomimetic extracellular matrix-incorporated scaffold induces osteogenic gene expression in human marrow stromal cells. Tissue Eng Part A. Epub ahead of print 24 October 2011. DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2011.0136.
30.
WangLStegemannJP. Glyoxal crosslinking of cell-seeded chitosan/collagen hydrogels for bone regeneration. [Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural]. Acta Biomater2011; 7(6): 2410–2417.
31.
PallelaRVVenkatesanJJanapalaVR. Biophysicochemical evaluation of chitosan-hydroxyapatite-marine sponge collagen composite for bone tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res Part A2012; 100A486–495.
32.
ZhangLTTangPZhangW. Effect of chitosan as a dispersant on collagen-hydroxyapatite composite matrices. Tissue Eng Part C2010; 16(1): 71–79.
33.
LuoTZhangWShiB. Enhanced bone regeneration around dental implant with bone morphogenetic protein 2 gene and vascular endothelial growth factor protein delivery. Clin Oral Implants Res2011; 23(4): 467–473.
34.
LianQLiDCHeJK. Mechanical properties and in-vivo performance of calcium phosphate cement-chitosan fibre composite. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't]. Proc IMechE Part H: J Engineering in Medicine2008; 222(3): 347–353.
35.
LiDXFanHSZhuXD. Controllable release of salmon-calcitonin in injectable calcium phosphate cement modified by chitosan oligosaccharide and collagen polypeptide. [Evaluation Studies Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t]. J Mater Sci Mater Med2007; 18(11): 2225–2231.
36.
NiuXFFanYLiuX. Repair of bone defect in femoral condyle using microencapsulated chitosan, nanohydroxyapatite/collagen and poly(L-lactide)-based microsphere-scaffold delivery system. Artif Organs2011; 35(7): E119–E128.
WangXWangXTanY. Synthesis and evaluation of collagen–chitosan–hydroxyapatite nanocomposites for bone grafting. J Biomed Mater Res Part A2009; 89(4): 1079–1087.
39.
RodriguesCVMSerricellaPLinharesABR. Characterization of a bovine collagen–hydroxyapatite composite scaffold for bone tissue engineering. Biomaterials2003; 24(27): 4987–4997.
40.
WainwrightSABBiggsWDCurreyJD. Mechanical design in organisms, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976.
41.
RevesBT. Preliminary investigation of lyophilization to improve drug delivery of chitosan-calcium phosphate bone scaffold construct, Memphis, TN: University of Memphis, 2008.
42.
ApterJT. Correlation of visco-elastic properties with microscopic structure of large arteries. IV. Thermal responses of collagen, elastin, smooth muscle, and intact arteries. [In Vitro]. Circ Res1967; 21(6): 901–918.
LinL-CChangS-JKuoSM. Evaluation of chitosan/β-tricalcium phosphate microspheres as a constituent to PMMA cement. [Feature Article]. J Mater Sci - Mater Med2005; 16(6): 567–574.
50.
AhnSHLeeHJKimGH. Polycaprolactone scaffolds fabricated with an advanced electrohydrodynamic direct-printing method for bone tissue regeneration. Biomacromolecules2011; 12(12): 4256–4263.
51.
KumbarSGTotiUSDengM. Novel mechanically competent polysaccharide scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t]. Biomed Mater2011; 6(6): 065 005–065 005.
52.
VermaDKKattiKSKattiDR. Mechanical response and multilevel structure of biomimetic hydroxyapatite/polygalacturonic/chitosan nanocomposites. Mater Sci Eng C2008; 28: 399–405.
53.
YoshiiTDumasJEOkawaA. Synthesis, characterization of calcium phosphates/polyurethane composites for weight-bearing implants. J Biomed Mater Res Part B2012; 100B(1): 32–40.
54.
JiangTNukavarapuSPDengM. Chitosan-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) microsphere-based scaffolds for bone tissue engineering: in vitro degradation and in vivo bone regeneration studies. [Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, Non-P.H.S.]. Acta Biomater2010; 6(9): 3457–3470.
55.
Mecwan MM. Design and evaluation of a novel composite chitosan-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) microsphere based system for bone tissue engineering applications. MS Thesis, University of Memphis, Memphis, 2011.
56.
KimSSParkMSGwakSJ. Accelerated bonelike apatite growth on porous polymer/ceramic composite scaffolds in vitro. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t]. Tissue Eng2006; 12(10): 2997–3006.
57.
KimHWKimHESalihV. Stimulation of osteoblast responses to biomimetic nanocomposites of gelatin-hydroxyapatite for tissue engineering scaffolds. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t]. Biomaterials2005; 26(25): 5221–5230.
58.
LickorishDRamshawJAWerkmeisterJAGlattauerVHowlettCR. Collagen-hydroxyapatite composite prepared by biomimetic process. Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A2004; 68(1): 19–27.
