Support for Acute Lung Injury (ALI) and Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) in many ways represents the summation of all intensive care unit nutrition modalities. Basic tenets of management are based on those established for the general population of mechanically ventilated patients. As a marker of critical illness however, patients with ALI/ARDS suffer from other organ dysfunctions that require advanced support. Specific issues to be considered in this population include carbon dioxide production, prevention of aspiration, and modulation of the inflammatory response. These particular areas, with special attention paid to the role of lipids in ALI/ARDS, will be reviewed.
Ware LB, Matthay MAThe acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1334-1349.
3.
Avecillas JF , Freire AX, Arroliga ACClinical epidemiology of acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: incidence, diagnosis, and outcomes . Clin Chest Med. 2006;27:549-557; abstract vii.
4.
Wheeler AP, Bernard GRAcute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome: a clinical review. Lancet. 2007;369(9572): 1553-1564.
5.
Johnson ER, Matthay MAAcute lung injury: epidemiology, pathogenesis, and treatment. J Aerosol Med Pulm Drug Deliv. 2010;23: 243-252.
6.
Bernard GR, Artigas A., Brigham KL, et al. The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS. Definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes, and clinical trial coordination. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149(pt1):818-824.
7.
Goss CH, Brower RG, Hudson LD, Rubenfeld GD; Ards Network.Incidence of acute lung injury in the United States. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:1607-1611.
8.
Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1301-1308.
9.
Milberg JA, Davis DR, Steinberg KP, Hudson LDImproved survival of patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): 1983-1993. JAMA. 1995;273:306-309.
10.
McIntyre RC Jr, Pulido EJ, Bensard DD, Shames BD, Abraham E.Thirty years of clinical trials in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med. 2000;28:3314-3331.
11.
Ely EW, Wheeler AP, Thompson BT, Ancukiewicz M., Steinberg KP, Bernard GRRecovery rate and prognosis in older persons who develop acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Ann Intern Med . 2002;136:25-36.
12.
Pratt PC, Vollmer RT, Shelburne JD, Crapo JDPulmonary morphology in a multihospital collaborative extracorporeal membrane oxygenation project. I. Light microscopy. Am J Pathol . 1979;95:191-214.
13.
Bachofen M. , Weibel ERStructural alterations of lung parenchyma in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Clin Chest Med . 1982;3:35-56.
14.
Idell S.Coagulation, fibrinolysis, and fibrin deposition in acute lung injury . Crit Care Med.2003;31(Suppl):S213-S220.
15.
Matthay MA, Ware LBPlasma protein C levels in patients with acute lung injury: prognostic significance . Crit Care Med. 2004;32(Suppl):S229-S232.
16.
Holmes CL, Walley KRCardiovascular management of ARDS. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;22:307-316.
17.
Gattinoni L. , Bombino M., Pelosi P., et al. Lung structure and function in different stages of severe adult respiratory distress syndrome . JAMA . 1994;271:1772-1779.
18.
Bernard GR, Luce JM, Sprung CL, et al. High-dose corticosteroids in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1987;317:1565-1570.
19.
Steinberg KP , Hudson LD, Goodman RB, et al. Efficacy and safety of corticosteroids for persistent acute respiratory distress syndrome . N Engl J Med. 2006;354:1671-1684.
20.
Spragg RG, Lewis JF, Walmrath HD, et al. Effect of recombinant surfactant protein C-based surfactant on the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:884-892.
21.
Taylor RW, Zimmerman JL, Dellinger RP, et al. Low-dose inhaled nitric oxide in patients with acute lung injury: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291:1603-1609.
22.
Ketoconazole for early treatment of acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. The ARDS Network. JAMA. 2000;283:1995-2002.
23.
Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of lisofylline for early treatment of acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med. 2002;30:1-6.
24.
Bernard GR, Wheeler AP, Arons MM, et al. A trial of antioxidants N-acetylcysteine and procysteine in ARDS. The Antioxidant in ARDS Study Group. Chest. 1997;112:164-172.
25.
Wright PE, Carmichael LC, Bernard GREffect of bronchodilators on lung mechanics in the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Chest. 1994;106:1517-1523.
26.
Wiedemann HP , Wheeler AP, Bernard GR, et al. Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:2564-2575.
27.
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)Clinical Trials Network, Wheeler AP, Bernard GR, et al. Pulmonary-artery versus central venous catheter to guide treatment of acute lung injury. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354:2213-2224.
28.
Silliman CC , Moore EE, Johnson JL, Gonzalez RJ, Biffl WLTransfusion of the injured patient: proceed with caution. Shock. 2004;21:291-299.
29.
Levy MM, Dellinger RP, Townsend SR, et al. The surviving sepsis campaign: results of an international guideline-based performance improvement program targeting severe sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2010;38:367-374.
30.
Treggiari MM , Martin DP, Yanez ND, Caldwell E., Hudson LD, Rubenfeld GDEffect of intensive care unit organizational model and structure on outcomes in patients with acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;176:685-690.
31.
Attia J., Ray JG, Cook DJ, Douketis J., Ginsberg JS, Geerts WHDeep vein thrombosis and its prevention in critically ill adults. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161:1268-1279.
32.
Boyce JM, Pittet D.; Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee.Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America. Association for Professionals in Infection Control.Infectious Diseases Society of America.Hand Hygeine Task Force. Guideline for Hand Hygeine in Health-Care Settings: recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygeine Task Force. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2002;23:S3-S40.
33.
Kress JP, Pohlman AS, O’Connor MF, Hall JBDaily interruption of sedative infusions in critically ill patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med. 2000 ;342:1471-1477.
34.
Cerra FB, Benitez MR, Blackburn GL, et al. Applied nutrition in ICU patients. A consensus statement of the American College of Chest Physicians. Chest. 1997;111:769-778.
35.
Fraser IMEffects of refeeding on respiration and skeletal muscle function. Clin Chest Med. 1986;7:131-139.
36.
Walker RN, Heuberger RAPredictive equations for energy needs for the critically ill. Respir Care. 2009;54:509-521.
37.
Alexander E. , Susla GM, Burstein AH, Brown DT, Ognibene FPRetrospective evaluation of commonly used equations to predict energy expenditure in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients. Pharmacotherapy. 2004;24:1659-1667.
38.
Weir JBNew methods for calculating metabolic rate with special reference to protein metabolism. J Physiol. 1949;109:1-9.
39.
Tilg H., Moschen ARRole of adiponectin and PBEF/visfatin as regulators of inflammation: involvement in obesity-associated diseases. Clin Sci ( Lond). 2008;114:275-288.
40.
Akinnusi ME , Pineda LA, El Solh AAEffect of obesity on intensive care morbidity and mortality: a meta-analysis . Crit Care Med. 2008;36:151-158.
41.
O’Brien JM, Welsh CH, Fish RH, Ancukiewicz M., Kramer AM; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network.Excess body weight is not independently associated with outcome in mechanically ventilated patients with acute lung injury. Ann Intern Med . 2004;140:338-345.
42.
Dickerson RNHypocaloric feeding of obese patients in the intensive care unit. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care . 2005;8:189-196.
43.
Frankenfield DC, Rowe WA, Smith JS, Cooney RNValidation of several established equations for resting metabolic rate in obese and nonobese people. J Am Diet Assoc. 2003;103:1152-1159.
44.
Port AM, Apovian C.Metabolic support of the obese intensive care unit patient: a current perspective . Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2010;13:184-191.
45.
McClave SA, Martindale RG, Vanek VW, et al. Guidelines for the provision and assessment of nutrition support therapy in the adult critically ill patient: Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (A.S.P.E.N.) . JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2009; 33:277-316.
46.
Lo H., Lin C., Tsai L.Effects of hypercaloric feeding on nutrition status and carbon dioxide production in patients with long-term mechanical ventilation. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2005;29:380-387.
47.
Liposky JM, Nelson LDVentilatory response to high caloric loads in critically ill patients . Crit Care Med. 1994;22:796-802.
48.
Benotti PN, Bistrian B.Metabolic and nutritional aspects of weaning from mechanical ventilation . Crit Care Med. 1989; 17:181-185.
49.
Jannace PW, Lerman RH, Dennis RC, Aalyson M., Yeston NSTotal parenteral nutrition-induced cyclic hypercapnia. Crit Care Med. 1988;16:727-728.
50.
Talpers SS, Romberger DJ, Bunce SB, Pingleton SKNutritionally associated increased carbon dioxide production. Excess total calories vs high proportion of carbohydrate calories. Chest . 1992;102:551-555.
51.
Fetterman JW , Zdanowicz MMTherapeutic potential of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in disease. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2009;66:1169-1179.
52.
Wall R., Ross RP, Fitzgerald GF, Stanton C.Fatty acids from fish: the anti-inflammatory potential of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids. Nutr Rev. 2010;68:280-289.
53.
Singer P., Shapiro H., Theilla M., Anbar R., Singer J., Cohen J.Antiinflammatory properties of omega-3 fatty acids in critical illness: novel mechanisms and an integrative perspective. Intensive Care Med. 2008;34:1580-1592.
54.
Calder PCThe 2008 ESPEN Sir David Cuthbertson Lecture: fatty acids and inflammation-from the membrane to the nucleus and from the laboratory bench to the clinic. Clin Nutr. 2010;29:5-12.
55.
Calder PCRationale and use of n-3 fatty acids in artificial nutrition. Proc Nutr Soc. 2010;69:565-573.
56.
Massaro M., Scoditti E., Carluccio MA, Campana MC, De Caterina R.Omega-3 fatty acids, inflammation and angiogenesis: basic mechanisms behind the cardioprotective effects of fish and fish oils. Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-le-grand). 2010 ;56:59-82.
57.
Supinski GS , Vanags J., Callahan LAEicosapentaenoic acid preserves diaphragm force generation following endotoxin administration . Crit Care. 2010;14:R35.
58.
Tiesset H., Pierre M., Desseyn J., et al. Dietary (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids affect the kinetics of pro- and antiinflammatory responses in mice with Pseudomonas aeruginosa lung infection. J Nutr. 2009;139:82-89.
59.
Gadek JE, DeMichele SJ, Karlstad MD, et al. Effect of enteral feeding with eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and antioxidants in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Enteral Nutrition in ARDS Study Group. Crit Care Med. 1999; 27:1409-1420.
60.
Pacht ER, DeMichele SJ, Nelson JL, Hart J., Wennberg AK, Gadek JEEnteral nutrition with eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and antioxidants reduces alveolar inflammatory mediators and protein influx in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:491-500.
61.
Singer P., Theilla M., Fisher H., Gibstein L., Grozovski E., Cohen J.Benefit of an enteral diet enriched with eicosapentaenoic acid and gamma-linolenic acid in ventilated patients with acute lung injury. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:1033-1038.
62.
Pontes-Arruda A., Aragão AMA, Albuquerque JDEffects of enteral feeding with eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and antioxidants in mechanically ventilated patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:2325-2333.
63.
Mayer K., Kiessling A., Ott J., et al. Acute lung injury is reduced in fat-1 mice endogenously synthesizing n-3 fatty acids. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2009;179:474-483.
64.
Pluess T., Hayoz D., Berger MM, et al. Intravenous fish oil blunts the physiological response to endotoxin in healthy subjects. Intensive Care Med. 2007 ;33:789-797.
65.
Barbosa VM, Miles EA, Calhau C., Lafuente E., Calder PCEffects of a fish oil containing lipid emulsion on plasma phospholipid fatty acids, inflammatory markers, and clinical outcomes in septic patients: a randomized, controlled clinical trial. Crit Care. 2010 ;14:R5.
66.
Bone RC, Balk RA, Cerra FB, et al. Definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. The ACCP/SCCM Consensus Conference Committee. American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine . Chest. 1992;101:1644-1655.
67.
Fan YY, Chapkin RSImportance of dietary gamma-linolenic acid in human health and nutrition . J Nutr. 1998;128:1411-1414.
68.
Chang CS, Sun HL, Lii CK, Chen HW, Chen PY, Liu KLGamma-linolenic acid inhibits inflammatory responses by regulating NF-kappaB and AP-1 activation in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages . Inflammation. 2010;33:46-57.
69.
Mancuso P., Whelan J., DeMichele SJ, Snider CC, Guszcza JA, Karlstad MDDietary fish oil and fish and borage oil suppress intrapulmonary proinflammatory eicosanoid biosynthesis and attenuate pulmonary neutrophil accumulation in endotoxic rats. Crit Care Med. 1997;25:1198-1206.
70.
Murray MJ, Kumar M., Gregory TJ, Banks PL, Tazelaar HD, DeMichele SJSelect dietary fatty acids attenuate cardiopulmonary dysfunction during acute lung injury in pigs. Am J Physiol. 1995 ;269(pt2):H2090-H2099.
71.
Calder PCA novel effect of eicosapentaenoic acid: improved diaphragm strength in endotoxemia . Crit Care. 2010;14:143.
72.
Calò L., Bianconi L., Colivicchi F., et al. N-3 Fatty acids for the prevention of atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass surgery: a randomized, controlled trial. J Am Coll Cardiol . 2005;45:1723-1728.
73.
Carpentier YA, Hacquebard M., Portois L., Dupont IE, Deckelbaum RJ, Malaisse WJRapid cellular enrichment of eicosapentaenoate after a single intravenous injection of a novel medium-chain triacylglycerol:fish-oil emulsion in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010; 91:875-882.
74.
Pittet YK , Berger MM, Pluess T., et al. Blunting the response to endotoxin in healthy subjects: effects of various doses of intravenous fish oil. Intensive Care Med . 2010;36:289-295.
75.
Kreymann KG , Berger MM, Deutz NEP , et al. ESPEN guidelines on enteral nutrition: intensive care. Clin Nutr . 2006;25:210-223.
76.
Heyland DK , Dhaliwal R., Drover JW, Gramlich L., Dodek P.Canadian clinical practice guidelines for nutrition support in mechanically ventilated, critically ill adult patients . JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2003;27:355-373.
77.
Morlion BJ , Torwesten E., Lessire H., et al. The effect of parenteral fish oil on leukocyte membrane fatty acid composition and leukotriene-synthesizing capacity in patients with postoperative trauma. Metabolism . 1996;45:1208-1213.
78.
ASPEN Board of Directors and the Clinical Guidelines Task Force.Guidelines for the use of parenteral and enteral nutrition in adult and pediatric patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2002;26(Suppl):1SA-138SA.
79.
Peter JV, Moran JL, Phillips-Hughes J.A metaanalysis of treatment outcomes of early enteral versus early parenteral nutrition in hospitalized patients. Crit Care Med . 2005;33:213-220; discussion 260-261.
80.
Villet S., Chiolero RL, Bollmann MD, et al. Negative impact of hypocaloric feeding and energy balance on clinical outcome in ICU patients. Clin Nutr. 2005;24:502-509.
81.
Martin CM, Doig GS, Heyland DK, Morrison T., Sibbald WJMulticentre, cluster-randomized clinical trial of algorithms for critical-care enteral and parenteral therapy (ACCEPT). CMAJ. 2004;170:197-204.
82.
Simpson F., Doig GSParenteral vs. enteral nutrition in the critically ill patient: a meta-analysis of trials using the intention to treat principle. Intensive Care Med. 2005;31:12-23.
83.
Wernerman J.Paradigm of early parenteral nutrition support in combination with insufficient enteral nutrition. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2008;11:160-163.
84.
Heidegger C. , Darmon P., Pichard C.Enteral vs. parenteral nutrition for the critically ill patient: a combined support should be preferred . Curr Opin Crit Care. 2008;14:408-414.
85.
Bauer P., Charpentier C., Bouchet C., Nace L., Raffy F., Gaconnet N.Parenteral with enteral nutrition in the critically ill. Intensive Care Med. 2000;26:893-900.
86.
Vincent J., Zambon M.Why do patients who have acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome die from multiple organ dysfunction syndrome? Implications for management . Clin Chest Med. 2006;27:725-731.
87.
Vincent JL, Bihari DJ, Suter PM, et al. The prevalence of nosocomial infection in intensive care units in Europe. Results of the European Prevalence of Infection in Intensive Care (EPIC) Study. EPIC International Advisory Committee. JAMA. 1995;274:639-644.
88.
Metheny NA, Clouse RE, Chang Y., Stewart BJ, Oliver DA, Kollef MHTracheobronchial aspiration of gastric contents in critically ill tube-fed patients: frequency, outcomes, and risk factors. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:1007-1015.
89.
Lien HC, Chang CS, Chen GHCan percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy prevent gastroesophageal reflux in patients with pre-existing esophagitis? Am J Gastroenterol . 2000;95:3439-3443.
90.
Taylor SJ, Fettes SB, Jewkes C., Nelson RJProspective, randomized, controlled trial to determine the effect of early enhanced enteral nutrition on clinical outcome in mechanically ventilated patients suffering head injury. Crit Care Med. 1999;27: 2525-2531.
91.
Ho KM, Dobb GJ, Webb SAR.A comparison of early gastric and post-pyloric feeding in critically ill patients: a meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2006;32:639-649.
92.
Marik PE, Zaloga GPGastric versus post-pyloric feeding: a systematic review. Crit Care. 2003;7:R46-R51.
93.
Heyland DK, Drover JW, Dhaliwal R., Greenwood J.Optimizing the benefits and minimizing the risks of enteral nutrition in the critically ill: role of small bowel feeding. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2002;26(Suppl):S51-55; discussion S56-57.
94.
Heyland DK, Drover JW, MacDonald S., Novak F., Lam M.Effect of postpyloric feeding on gastroesophageal regurgitation and pulmonary microaspiration: results of a randomized controlled trial. Crit Care Med. 2001;29:1495-1501.
95.
McClave SA, DeMeo MT, DeLegge MH, et al. North American summit on aspiration in the critically ill patient: consensus statement. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2002;26(Suppl):S80-S85.
96.
Jabbar A., McClave SAPre-pyloric versus post-pyloric feeding. Clin Nutr . 2005;24:719-726.
97.
MacLaren R. , Kiser TH, Fish DN, Wischmeyer PEErythromycin vs metoclopramide for facilitating gastric emptying and tolerance to intragastric nutrition in critically ill patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2008 ;32:412-419.
98.
Nguyen NQ, Chapman MJ, Fraser RJ, Bryant LK, Holloway RHErythromycin is more effective than metoclopramide in the treatment of feed intolerance in critical illness. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:483-489.
99.
Chapman MJ, Fraser RJ, Kluger MT, Buist MD, De Nichilo DJErythromycin improves gastric emptying in critically ill patients intolerant of nasogastric feeding. Crit Care Med. 2000 ;28: 2334-2337.
100.
Berne JD, Norwood SH, McAuley CE, et al. Erythromycin reduces delayed gastric emptying in critically ill trauma patients: a randomized, controlled trial. J Trauma . 2002;53:422-425.
101.
Nguyen NQ, Chapman M., Fraser RJ, Bryant LK, Burgstad C., Holloway RHProkinetic therapy for feed intolerance in critical illness: one drug or two ? Crit Care Med. 2007;35:2561-2567.
102.
Meissner W. , Dohrn B., Reinhart K.Enteral naloxone reduces gastric tube reflux and frequency of pneumonia in critical care patients during opioid analgesia . Crit Care Med. 2003;31:776-780.
103.
McQuiggan M., Kozar R., Sailors RM, Ahn C., McKinley B., Moore F.Enteral glutamine during active shock resuscitation is safe and enhances tolerance of enteral feeding. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2008 ;32:28-35.
104.
Roberts DJ , Banh HL, Hall RIUse of novel prokinetic agents to facilitate return of gastrointestinal motility in adult critically ill patients. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2006;12:295-302.
105.
Drakulovic MB, Torres A., Bauer TT, Nicolas JM, Nogué S., Ferrer M.Supine body position as a risk factor for nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: a randomised trial . Lancet. 1999;354:1851-1858.
106.
Guidelines for prevention of nosocomial pneumonia. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1997; 46(RR-1):1-79.
107.
Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;171:388-416.
108.
Dodek P., Keenan S., Cook D., et al. Evidence-based clinical practice guideline for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Ann Intern Med. 2004;141:305-313.
109.
Gattinoni L., Tognoni G., Pesenti A., et al. Effect of prone positioning on the survival of patients with acute respiratory failure . N Engl J Med. 2001;345:568-573.
110.
Reignier J. , Thenoz-Jost N., Fiancette M., et al. Early enteral nutrition in mechanically ventilated patients in the prone position. Crit Care Med. 2004;32:94-99.
111.
Mancebo J. , Fernández R., Blanch L., et al. A multicenter trial of prolonged prone ventilation in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006;173:1233-1239.
112.
Voggenreiter G., Aufmkolk M., Stiletto RJ, et al. Prone positioning improves oxygenation in post-traumatic lung injury-a prospective randomized trial. J Trauma. 2005;59:333-341; discussion 341-343.
113.
Alexiou VG , Ierodiakonou V., Dimopoulos G., Falagas MEImpact of patient position on the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Crit Care . 2009;24:515-522.
114.
Tang BMP , Craig JC, Eslick GD, Seppelt I., McLean ASUse of corticosteroids in acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis . Crit Care Med. 2009;37:1594-1603.
115.
van den Berghe G., Wouters P., Weekers F., et al. Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients. N Engl J Med . 2001;345:1359-1367.
116.
Scurlock C. , Raikhelkar J., Mechanick JICritique of normoglycemia in intensive care evaluation: survival using glucose algorithm regulation (NICE-SUGAR)-a review of recent literature. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2010;13:211-214.
117.
Finfer S., Chittock DR, Su SY, et al. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2009; 360:1283-1297.
118.
Ravasco P. , Camilo METhe impact of fluid therapy on nutrient delivery: a prospective evaluation of practice in respiratory intensive care. Clin Nutr. 2003;22:87-92.
119.
Spalding DR , Behranwala KA, Straker P., Thompson JN, Williamson RCNon-occlusive small bowel necrosis in association with feeding jejunostomy after elective upper gastrointestinal surgery. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 2009;91:477-482.
120.
Cresci G., Cúe J.The patient with circulatory shock: to feed or not to feed? Nutr Clin Pract. 2008;23:501-509.
121.
Marvin RG, McKinley BA, McQuiggan M., Cocanour CS, Moore FANonocclusive bowel necrosis occurring in critically ill trauma patients receiving enteral nutrition manifests no reliable clinical signs for early detection . Am J Surg. 2000;179: 7-12.
