Abstract
This article presents an explanation of the incorporation of on-board radio communication as a consequence of the growing concerns for maritime safety. It focuses on the economic, political and social characteristics that influenced its incorporation and evolution, and a legislative change in safety. The article demonstrates how the evolution of radio communication has been very important as the only emerging means to request and provide assistance on the high seas. In addition, the study provides evidence of the technological leap that has improved radio communication, with a new system with a high degree of reliability: the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System.
Keywords
In this article, the author reviews the incorporation and the importance of on-board radio communication, which is seen as a key element in security. Generally speaking, radio communication plays an important role in maritime security, and this article considers and assesses whether operating radio communications can affect safety. In this respect, radio communications have the functions of distress and urgency, as well as safety and routine.
In analysing the beginnings of on-board radio communications, a variety of historical events have been used. This allows for a deeper analysis and understanding. In the analysis of the period selected, it was decided that ships and time acquire important symbolic and social in the study. This allows us to relate them to a broader evolution in maritime safety.
It is common knowledge that radio communication has experienced profound changes over time. The focus of the change was technological advances and the incorporation of a new system: the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS). Regarding the growing power of the British Empire and its leadership in many areas of technology, efforts were made to connect sea power with access to trade. 1 Existing research has explored the technological advances in radio communications; 2 the advancements in technology created the opportunity for this in the form of wireless technology. 3 Over time, the ability of radio communication to adapt to technological advances has been key to its increasing global coverage, higher data rates and intelligibility, and a new digital communications infrastructure.
What follows is an investigation into the development of wireless technology and its impact on maritime safety, and the identification of how political, technological and economic contributed to the transition to a new system. The discussion is organized into the following sections. Initially, there is an appraisal of what maritime safety is. Next, the International Telecommunication Union is established as the institution that is responsible for monitoring and legislating communications. Afterwards, the beginning of on-board radio communications, your standardization and change is discussed. And finally, the importance of tecnhological progress in creating a new communications system, GMDSS. And with the conclusions presented in the final section.
Maritime safety
Maritime safety refers to both the safety of the ship and the safety of the environment. The safety of the ship refers to factors that influence navigation and the safety of human life aboard. We could say that maritime safety depends on the ship, therefore it is important to have good security resources. Technological advances have become real security partners – an example being the satellite technologies used to determine the position of a ship, which are also used for emergency, security and routine communications. 4 According to the International Telecommunication Union, radio communications improve safety and well-being at sea, which supports Goal 9 of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. 5
Radio communications are the only means of communication between ships or between ships and the shore. This communication capability has become indispensable for the maritime sector, where shipping supports a globalized economy and the safety of navigation is a priority objective.
Origins of maritime safety
Originally, maritime safety was mainly focused on the safety of the ship itself and its personnel. Over the years, various national safety-oriented regulations and institutions have emerged. Some of these are discussed here, although we will focus on safety from a radio communications point of view.
In 1824, Sir William Hillary founded the National Lifeboat Institution to provide support to the English fleet by means of lifeboats manned by trained personnel 24 hours a day, 7 days a week; the people who manned the lifeboats were volunteers and the institution was financed by donations. 6 It was, and still is, a service independent of the coastguard and the government. The creation of this institution was in response to the high number of shipwrecks around the Isle of Man. These included the wreck of the Wallace Edkin in Southport and the Duke of Richmond, which caught fire in the Irish Sea.
All of this motivated the public's desire to assist ships in distress. Additionally, this meant that every coastal country did everything possible to create its own rescue service, collectively referred to as the National Lifeboat Institution. An example of such efforts was in 1859 when Spain obtained boats and materials appropriate for the Royal Institution, distributed by different Spanish ports. However, although the boats were equipped, they did not have qualified personnel, so the services were not effective, since safety requires specific training, warning signals, and knowledge of how to put out fires aboard and first aid. In 1880, the Spanish Society for the Rescue of Shipwrecked Sailors was established to help on the coasts of both the mainland and adjacent islands. 7
The British Board of Trade supervised trade relations with other nations, enforcing the law and much of the commerce, such as that pertaining to navigation. 8 It established the first International Code of Signals in 1855 to resolve conflicts because of language issues and deal with situations of maritime safety. 9 When it began to establish rules in navigation, each nation had its own rules, which depended on the maritime capital of the country. If we look internationally, there were many contradictions, and therefore collisions were frequent. Later, this organization, due to the growth in the size of ships and their increasing speed, along with an increase in sea traffic, established the ‘Rule of the Road at Sea’ (1863). This document outlined the rules for the separation of sea traffic, which were gradually embraced by maritime nations. 10
The Merchant Shipping Act was introduced in 1894 by the British Parliament. This law included preventive regulations that addressed, among other things, training, qualifications and navigation rules, although it did not manage to prevent the fear of accidents. 11 In 1948, the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization was established to further improve maritime transport security measures. This organization was renamed the International Maritime Organization in 1982. 12 The International Maritime Organization has used international conventions, amendments and resolutions to carry out its tasks. Examples include the convention that established the International Maritime Organization, the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea 1972 (COLREGs) and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL).
Now that the origins of maritime security have been reviewed, we move on to the origins of the International Telecommunication Union, whose purpose is the regulation of new communications technologies.
International Telecommunication Union
The boom in production as a result of the Industrial Revolution in Europe from the mid eighteenth century onwards had a major impact on international shipping. An example of this is the copper coating that was used on ships as a safety measure. 13 And new communications technologies were also present on board. These advancements led to changes in the rules and regulations of various conventions.
One of the first technological advances in communications was made in 1750 by Benjamin Franklin, who developed the Law of Cargo Conservation. This law determined that there should be both positive and negative burdens. Later, in 1820, André-Marie Ampère invented the light bulb. In 1831, Michael Faraday's demonstration with a variable magnetic field produced an electric current. 14 In 1832, Baron Pavel Schilling built the first electromagnetic telegraph. 15 On learning of the invention, Cooke and Wheatstone developed an electromagnetic telegraph system, which they patented in 1837. In 1839, the first telegraph line was created in London as an auxiliary and safety measure for the railway. This line extended over 22 kilometres, and was further extended 1841. In the United States, Samuel Morse was working on an electromagnetic telegraph from 1830, but it was not until 1840 that he patented it.
The telegraphy that was carried out in 1830 was on land, highlighting the high purchasing power of countries such as England and the United States, and the main communities of European countries. With the appearance of ‘telegraphy’ and therefore progress, at first it remained on national telegraphic lines, since each country used a different system and equipment. It then moved to bilateral agreements – such as those between Prussia and Australia, Prussia and Saxony, and Australia and Bavaria, forming the Austro-German Telegraph Union – until it began to unify and normalize communications between all countries. 16 In 1865, the International Telecommunication Union emerged as the institution responsible for monitoring and legislating communications.
The beginning of on-board radio communications
It was Marconi who carried out the early tests to establish communication between two ships. In the last years of the nineteenth century, he successfully perfected the scientific advances that had been made previously in the field of electromagnetic waves, facilitating the possibility of communication with ships and wireless telegraphy.
Many researchers contributed to the emergence of wireless telegraphy, such as Oersted, Ampère, Faraday, Hertz, Tesla, Brandy, Lodge and Popov. However, the man who is regarded as the father of telegraphy is Marconi; he was the one who patented and marketed the radio. In 1898, he established the first daily radio service between the Isle of Wight and Bournemouth in England. Additionally, the advances in land communications were such that, in 1899, new technology was introduced to ships.
In 1899, the first ship, the Saint Paul, moved telegraph equipment on board. 17 The new position of ‘radiotelegraph operator’ was the key to communications, meaning that a man at sea who might feel alone and be missing his family and country would be able to use a method to ease his solitude: Morse telegraphy. 18 This was in addition to Morse code becoming a means for safe navigation and great support for search and rescue operations. The progress of communications on ships at the time was scarcely known to most people, until rescue operations began to be more effective in dealing with maritime accidents, such as the case of the icebreaker in 1900 known as the Yermak. 19 After receiving a call, operators rescued some fishermen in the Baltic Sea.
Marconi’s International Marine Communication Company was founded in 1900, and it attracted important clients that hired its equipment and operators, such as the British Lloyd Company and the Italian government. Its power and monopoly was so great that it was not enough to put Marconi's equipment on ships – ships that did not have his equipment presented problems for communication. The monopoly was so evident that, in 1902, communication between ships and the coast was not allowed if ships did not have the Marconi’s equipment on board – a norm that established Marconi as a household name. 20
As telegraphy on ships became a major industry, a rival to Marconi emerged: Telefunken. This German company was founded in 1903 by the merger of Funkentelegraphie and Telebraun to compete against Marconi. 21 At that time, the rivalry between Great Britain and Germany was due to the fact that they were both great powers, and the emergence of telegraphy was highly fought for, including the control of patents, technologies and the market – and the importance of communications only increased in periods of war.
Standardization of assistance
In 1906 in Berlin, the first International Radiotelegraph Convention was signed at the first International Radiotelegraph Conference, and included in its annex obligatory regulations. These regulations were revised several times and were known as the Radio Regulations. They included, among other things, the duty to communicate between equipment from different manufacturers and shipping companies – that is, technical compatibility. The order of priority of communications was established and the frequency band was divided into three blocks: (1) for maritime public correspondence; (2) between long-distance shore stations; and (3) for naval and military installations.
SOS was standardized in Morse code (• • • – – – • • •) as the distress signal, replacing CQD (come quick danger), which was a code used for communications (but acceptance was not universal, even in 1912). 22 In 1909, Marconi continued to reject communications by other ships that did not have his equipment since the agreement had been signed by all member.
First distress calls
In 1909, the Slavonia broadcast the first distress signal for radiotelegraphy on her journey between Palermo and New York when she was wrecked near the Azores. 23 In the same year, the Arapahoe put out a Morse distress call after breaking her propeller, and, within a few months, Marconi received a distress call from the SS Iroquois.
First maritime rescues
In January 1909, the first maritime rescue took place where radio communications played a primary role. 24 The incident was a boarding between a British passenger ship, the Republic, and an Italian passenger ship, the Florida. 25 The Florida collided with the Republic at the height of the engine room, causing her to shut down the engines, boilers and dynamos, and therefore run out of electricity. Nevertheless, thanks to the energy supplied by the secondary batteries, the operator sent a distress call (CQD) through the wireless telegraph. Several ships responded, thereby confirming the influential capacity of the new technology. Since then, radio communications have become vital for the rapid reporting of incidents for subsequent resolution, such as the rescue of ships or crew. Radio communications went from being an instrument to alleviate isolation at sea and give warnings to something that was necessary to save thousands of lives.
Another significant example was the case of the Kentucky in 1910, which, before sinking, sent a rescue call and managed to save many lives, as well as that of the Merida in 1911.
Change in the history of maritime safety
The ship that marked the history of maritime safety and, in particular, communications was the Titanic in 1912. 26 This ship transmitted a distress signal before sinking, which facilitated the rescue of many passengers and crew. The incident prompted the International Radiotelegraph Conference in London that year, where it was observed that safety regulations had remained obsolete in relation to the technological advances in those years, just like the service of telegraphy and its function in the safety of navigation. 27 At a second conference, several measures in relation to communications were introduced, such as an agreement on the wavelength bands for distress signals and periods of silence – a three-minute silence each hour at quarter past and quarter to the hour. 28
Two years later, an agreement was signed (although it did not come into force due to the First World War): SOLAS 1914. 29 This included the legally binding condition of carrying a medium-frequency radiotelegraphic installation on board to be in operation 24 hours a day. This convention marked the changes in International Radio Communications Regulations, in its specific SOLAS chapter. In addition, they included some chapters on radiotelegraphy for rescues, fire protection and navigation.
SOLAS 29, SOLAS 48 and SOLAS 60 forced operators to carry out installations on passenger and cargo ships (over 1,600 Gross Registered Tonnage (GRT)). Telegraphy became the first internationally regulated technology until SOLAS 48, when a radiotelephone station was required on ships between 300 and 1,600 GRT, and a radiogoniometer was included – both safety measures. In SOLAS 60, listening schedules, the technical specifications of the equipment and modes of operation were specified. 30 It was not until SOLAS 74 that radar and probes were included. In these conventions, the radio electronics officer was established as the person in charge of the handling and maintenance of the equipment. 31
During the war, research continued and technological advances were made. Transmitters and receivers were created so that there could be communication in the trenches. The techniques for locating enemy frequencies were improved to such an extent that, by triangulation, enemy ships could be located. This led merchant ships to decrease their use of radio so as not to be detected by the enemy; this was considered radio silence. The importance of radio on ships became vital; the equipment was changed from spark equipment to arc transistors and then to vacuum tubes. This technology increased the capacity of radios, and voice transmission was achieved in 1917. Operators continued to use shortwave frequencies for broadcasting. Moreover, the war contributed both to the generation of more scientists and to technological advances.
There are many ships of great historical interest with regard to transformations during wartime, such as the Lusitania, which was a deluxe ocean liner with a telegraph station that was transformed into an on-board troop transport ship. 32 Other ship was the Lancastria, which also had a dedication to evacuation and transport of troop. 33
Radio communication improvements: the GMDSS
The technological advances were used for on-board devices and as part of the international maritime safety system, which brought about pertinent legislative changes for modernization. This included education and progress with satellites. The International Maritime Organization, in its efforts to improve maritime safety, began to explore the possibility of using satellites as an element of maritime communications following the launch of the first telecommunications satellite, Telstar, in 1962. It was in 1966 that the Maritime Safety Committee studied the operational requirements of such satellites for maritime use.
In the early 1970s, it was observed that maritime communications could be improved thanks to the new technological advances for satellites and the low bandwidth facility of communicating with telegraphy. The International Maritime Organization perceived therefore that it was necessary to modernize the communications in the maritime distress system that had been adopted by the then new SOLAS 74.
It was in 1973 that a conference was convened to establish the use of satellites for a new maritime communications system. The conference took place over three sessions, during the last of which establishing the International Maritime Telecommunications Organization, called INMARSAT.
The International Maritime Organization, in Resolution A283 (VIII) of 1973, recognized the need to improve maritime safety with a more effective maritime distress system. 34 It stipulated that the system should meet several specifications, such as facilitating communications over long and medium distances, ease of use, international standard procedures to facilitate rescue operations and coordination, automatic alarms and position indicators. The origin of INMARSAT in 1979 by the International Maritime Organization and subsequent developments led to the development and acceptance of a new system: the GMDSS. 35
In 1979, the International Maritime Organization proposed the new system – the GMDSS – the basis of which is found in Resolution A420 (XI). 36 In SOLAS 74, which entered into force in 1980, the steps for the introduction of the new system were set out, including the large financial investment involved. Assistance for stricken ships was evident and reflected internationally in SOLAS. However, assistance and search and rescue operations depended on the individual country (it was a national plan) and their requirements and resources. Although each country had a very similar plan, a new convention had to be incorporated in 1979 – the SAR Convention. In 1985, collaboration between countries and related rescue coordination centres was discussed to optimize rescues at sea. The need arose to renew communications, developing the new GMDSS. 37 Thereafter, Article 98 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea also established a general obligation for all coastal states to organize a search and rescue service. 38 The SAR Convention was designed to provide a global emergency system where the GMDSS would support efficient communications. Both the GMDSS and the SAR Convention are fundamental to maritime safety and security as they ensure the effectiveness and speed needed in the event of an emergency.
The SAR Convention was amended in 1998 (MSC,70(69), which came into force in January 2000) and in 2004 it was renamed the Hamburg Convention, and was key to maritime search and rescue services, specifying the requirements for search and rescue systems for the world’s coastal states, establishing agreements with neighbouring countries, and establishing search and rescue regions. 39
The Convention aimed to monitor the coasts and thus rescue persons in distress at sea who were in the surveillance zone. These arrangements included the establishment, operation and maintenance of search and rescue facilities where practicable and necessary, taking into account the density of maritime traffic and navigational hazards. Vessel notification systems were required to be established, whereby ships reported their situation to the coast. This reduced the time between the last contact and the start of the search and rescue operation, and helped to determine which vessels could assist.
The SAR Convention provided a global plan for conducting search and rescue operations, but what it failed to achieve was the optimization of the communications that were, and still are, important in search and rescue procedures, and that is where the GMDSS became important. The basic criterion of the GMDSS is to alert both search and rescue authorities on land and vessels close to the casualty so that they can assist in the search and rescue with minimal delay. It can also maintain emergency and maritime safety communications and nautical and meteorological radio warnings. In other words, it can perform critical safety communication functions. To this end, the system consists of several pieces of equipment depending on the sea area in which the ship is sailing. 40
Cooperation between the International Maritime Organization and the International Telecommunication Union was instrumental in establishing the appropriate legislative framework to implement the GMDSS through the World Administrative Radio Conferences for the maritime mobile service in 1983 and 1987. 41 They welcomed amendments to the regulations, where they agreed on frequencies, operating procedures and the radio personnel for the GMDSS. The first step was for states to install the GMDSS as of 1 February 1992. To do so, ships only had to incorporate a radio beacon and NAVigational TEXt Messages (NAVTEX). The second step was taken in 1995, where it was stipulated that newly built ships had to comply with the GMDSS, as indicated in Chapter IV of SOLAS. The third and final step was that, by February 1999, all ships had to be equipped accordingly.
Now that the GMDSS has been implemented, deficiencies continue to be found in radio communication inspections due to the possible lack of competence of the operators in charge, whether because of lack of training, stress, workload or other circumstances that have an impact on communications. 42 E. S. Tzannatos, among others, has studied and commented on these issues, and found that operators in charge tended to be incompetent and issued false distress signals. Another study comments on operators’ lack of training. 43 Additionally, one study has analysed in detail information on how often GMDSS devices are used and whether any modernization is needed. 44 There are studies where oil-tanker collisions have been investigated. According to the results, the reasons for the accidents are the lack of communication between vessels and lack of communication in the management of bridge resources. 45 Despite having the GMDSS in place, it is still necessary to continue resolving the errors that the system has in the case of false alerts. The International Maritime Organization has responded by approving Resolution A814(19) and the committee circular MSC/Cir.861. 46
Conclusions
From the aspect of maritime safety, this article has presented the significant advancements in the field of communication resulting in corresponding telegraphy on board ships. Since radio communication is the only possible way to contact the outside of the ship during navigation. The entry of new technologies developed by researchers in the field of communications into service in the maritime sector shows that, over time, marine radio communications have evolved and improved significantly, forcing international organizations to adapt, improve and even contemplate them in regulations.
It is very important to provide a common infrastructure for establishing links between ships, and between ships and shore. Seafarers and maritime entities ashore need more interoperable, reliable, functional and secure maritime radio communication systems. The safety of crews, cargos and the environment is dependent on efficient and reliable radio communication services. The failure to implement communication procedures on a radio call, especially in distress calls, can lead to them not being received or addressed as quickly as they should be, which undoubtedly leads to delays in the deployment of necessary aid. Delayed aid increases the possibility of the loss of life.
The foregoing highlights the importance and effectiveness of radio communications in the maritime sector as long as there is the proper maintenance of equipment, adequate training of staff, and strict compliance with applicable regulations. All this as a result of the replacement of a radio officer, specialist in communications among other matters, with a navigational officer whose specialization is navigation. Therefore, it seems that radio communications are just one step further down the path towards maritime safety.
This article began by systematically constructing maritime safety, which has served as the basis for a study of radio communication. Second, on-board radio communication for maritime safety has been evaluated. Finally, the results demonstrate the remarkable efficiency and performance of radio communications, which are particularly suitable for the transmission and reception of messages.
In these domains, data may consist of various types of information, including all relevant information that affects the safety of navigation, such as nautical warnings, notices to mariners, weather or scheduled forecasts, ongoing search and rescue operations, and operational ships. Future research directions may focus on whether inspections detect deficiencies in radio communication. This is a possible consequence of the increased workload of the navigational officer due to the disappearance of radio electronics officers on board ships.
Footnotes
Notes
Author biography
Raquel Esther Rey Charlo is a postdoctoral research fellow and lecturer at the University of Cadiz, Spain. She completed her PhD in 2021 at the University of Cadiz on ‘Deficiencies in Maritime Communications on Ships Inspected by the MoU of Paris: Analysis of Arrests for Causes and Records’. Her research interests include on-board radio communication, maritime labour and occupational risk prevention.