The alkylbenzenes, toluene being the most common example, represent a class of six-membered ring aromatic compounds that have a variety of alkyl groups attached. These chemicals are liquids with relatively low boiling points and are used primarily as solvents or as starting materials in the synthesis of other chemicals and drugs. They are also integral components of gasoline, distillate fuels and other petroleum products. These substituted aromatics are economically important in the chemical, petroleum, pharmaceutical, polymer, paint and dye industries. Alkylbenzenes such as toluene, xylene, ethylbenzene, styrene and cumene are toxicologically important since they are produced, used or disposed of in the largest quantities and therefore might pose significant and potential health risks to man and the environment. In general, the toxicity of alkylbenzenes has been found to be relatively low. Also, for the most part, human and environmental risks are low; however, there may be a few operations where the potential for high exposure could exist. These exposures are minimized by workplace controls or personal protective equipment. Furthermore, health risks for humans are minimized by guidelines for maximum allowable exposure concentrations which have been established for the workplace. This present paper reviews the toxicology and disposition of toluene in animals and humans.
ABOU-EL Marahem, M.M., Millburn, P., Smith, R.L. and Williams, R.T. (1967). Biliary excretion of foreign compounds: Benzene and its derivatives in rat. Biochem. J. 105:1269-1274.
2.
Andersson, R., Carlsson, M.B., Nordqvist, M.B. and Sollenberg, J. (1983). Urinary excretion of hippuric acid and o-cresol after laboratory exposure of humans to toluene. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health53:101-108.
3.
Apostoli, P., Brugnone, F., Perbellini, L., Cocheo, V., Bellomo, M.L. and Silvestri, R. (1982). Biomonitoring of occupational toluene exposure . Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health50:153-168.
4.
Astier, A. and Deutsch, A.M. (1980). High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of hippuric acid in human urine. J. Chromatogr. 182:88-93.
5.
Astrand, I., Ehrner-Samuel, H., Kilbom, H. and Ovrum, P. (1972). Toluene exposure: I. Concentration in alveolar air and blood at rest and during exercise. Work Environ. Health9:119-130.
6.
Bakke, O.M. and Scheline, R.R. (1970). Hydroxylation of aromatic hydrocarbons in the rat. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 16:691-700.
7.
Barlow, S.M. and Sullivan, F.M. (1982). Reproductive Hazards of Industrial Chemicals-An evaluation of animal and human data. Academic Press, New York, pp. 538-549.
8.
Barman, M.L., Sigel, N.B., Beddle, D.B. and Larson, R.K. (1964). Acute and chronic effects of glue sniffing. California Medicine100:19-22.
9.
Batchelor, J.J. (1927). Relative toxicity of benzol and its higher homologues . Amer. J. Hyg. 7:276.
10.
Bellanca, J.A., Davis, P.L., Donnelly, B., Dal Cortivo, L.A. and Wein-Berg, S.B. (1982). Detection and quantitation of multiple volatile compounds in tissues by GC and GC/MS. J. Analyt. Toxicol. 6:238.
11.
Benignus, V.A. (1981). Neurobehavioral effects of toluene: a review. Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol. 3:407-415.
12.
Benignus, V.A., Muller, K.E., Barton, C.N. and Bittikofer, J.A. (1981). Toluene levels in blood and brain of rats during and after respiratory exposure. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 61:326-334.
13.
Benignus, V.A., Muller, K.E., Graham, J.A. and Barton, C.N. (1984). Toluene levels in blood and brain of rats as a function of toluene level in inspired air. Environ. Res. 33:39-46.
14.
Bergman, K. (1979). Whole-body autoradiography and allied tracer techniques in distribution and elimination studies of some organic solvents. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health5(Suppl. 1):1-263.
15.
Bernstein, L.M. (1972). Vopr. Gig. Tr. Profzabol., Mater. Nauch. Konf.53 cited in Sandmeyer (1981).
16.
Bieniek G. and Wilczok, T. (1981). Thin-layer chromatography of hippuric and m-methylhippuric acid in urine after mixed exposure to toluene and xylene. Brit. J. Ind. Med. 38:304-306. '
17.
Boor, J.W. and Hurtig, H.I. (1977). Persistent cerebellar ataxia after exposure to toluene. Ann. Neurol. 2:440-442.
18.
Bos, R.P., Brouns, R.M.E., Van Doorn, R., Theuws, J.L.G. and Henderson, P.T. (1981). Non-mutagenicity of toluene, o-, m-and p-xylene, o-methylbenzyl alcohol and o-methylbenzyl sulfate in the Ames assay. Mutat. Res. 88:273-279.
19.
Braier, L. (1973). A comparative study of isocyclic hydrocarbons in animals and in man. Hematol. Arch. 58:491-500.
20.
Browning, E. (1965). Toluene in Toxicity and Metabolism of Industrial Solvents. Elsevier Publishing Co., Amsterdam, pp. 66-76.
21.
Cameron, G.R., Patterson, J.L.H., De Saram, G.S.W. and Thomas, J.C. (1938). The toxicity of some methyl derivatives of benzene with special reference to pseudocumene and heavy coal tar naphtha. J. Pathol. Bact. 46:95-107.
22.
Capellini, A. and Alessio, L. (1971). The urinary excretion of hippuric acid in workers exposed to toluene. Gig. Tr. Prof. Zabol. 19:6-10.
23.
Caperos, J.R. and Fernandez, J.G. (1977). Simultaneous detrmination of toluene and xylene metabolites in the urine gas chromatography. Brit. J. Ind. Med. 34:229-233.
24.
Carlsson, A. and Lindqvist, T. (1977). Exposure of animals and man to toluene. Scand . J. Work Environ. Health3:135-143.
25.
Carlsson, A. and Ljungquist, E. (1982). Exposure to toluene. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health8:56.
26.
Carpenter, C.P., Shaffer, C.B., Weil, C.S. and Smyth, JR., H.F. (1944). Studies on the inhalation of 1,3-butadiene with comparison of its narcotic effect with benzol, toluol and styrene. J. Ind. Hyg.26:69.
27.
Carpenter, C.P., Geary, JR, D.L., Myers, R.C., Machreiner, D.J., Sullivan, L.J. and King, J.M. (1976). Petroleum hydrocarbon toxicity studies. XIII. Animal and human response to vapors of toluene concentrate. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 36:473-490.
28.
Chassevant, A. and Garnier, M. (1903). Toxicite de benzene et de quelques hydrocarbures aromatiques. Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol. 55:1255.
29.
Cocheo, V., Silvestri, R., Bombi, G.G. and Perbellini, L. (1982). Purge and trap analysis of toluene in blood: comparison with head space method. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 43:938.
30.
Cohr, K.-H. and Stokholm, J. (1979). Toluene-a toxicologic review. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health5:71-90.
31.
Collom, W.D. and Winek, C.L. (1970). Detection of glue constituents in fatalities due to "glue sniffing." Clin. Toxicol. 3:125.
32.
Daly, J. (1971). Enzymatic oxidation at carbon in Concepts in Biochemical Pharmacology, Part 2, B.B. Brodie and J.R. Gillette (eds), Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, Vol. 28. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 285-311.
33.
Dobrokohtov, V.B. and Enikeev, M.I. (1977). Mutagenic effect of benzene, toluene and a mixture of these hydrocarbons in a chronic experiment. Gig. Sanit . 1:32-34.
34.
Dossing, M., Aelum, J.B., Hansen, S.H., Lundqvist, G.R. and Andersen, N.T. (1983). Urinary hippuric acid and orthocresol excretion in man during experimental exposure to toluene. Brit. J. Ind. Med. 40:470-473.
35.
Dutkiewicz, T. and Tyras, H. (1968). The quantitative estimation of toluene skin absorption in man. Int. Arch. Gewerbepathol. Gewerbehyg. 24:253-257.
36.
Elliot, H.C., JR. (1957). Microdetermination of hippuric acid in urine. Anal. Chem. 29:1712-1715.
37.
Ellman, G.L., Burkhalter, A. and Ladou, J. (1961). A fluorometric method for the determination of hippuric acid. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 57:813-818.
38.
Engstrom, K., Husman, K. and Rantanen, J. (1976). Measurement of toluene and xylene metabolites by gas chromatography. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health36:153-160.
39.
Fabre, R., Truhaut, R., Laham, S. and Peron, M. (1955a). Toxicological research on substitute solvents for benzene. II. Study of toluene. Arch. Malad. Profess. 16:197-215.
40.
Fabre, R., Truhaut, R., Bernichon, J. and Loisillier, F. (1955b). Recherches toxicologiques sur les solvants de remplacment de benzene ou cumene. Arch. Malad. Profess. 16:285.
41.
Forni, A., Pacifico, E. and Limonta, A. (1971). Chromosome studies on workers exposed to benzene or toluene or both. Arch. Environ. Health22:373-378.
42.
Gamberale, F. and Hultengren, M. (1972). Toluene exposure. II. Psychophysiological functions . Work Environ. Health9:131-139.
43.
Garriott, J.C., Foerster, E.H., Juarez, L., Delagarza, F., Mendiola, I. and Curoe, J. (1981). Measurement of toluene in blood and breath in cases of solvent abuse. Clin. Toxicol. 18:471-479.
44.
Gerarde, H.W. (1956). Toxicological studies on hydrocarbons. II. A comparative study of the effects of benzene and certain mono-n-alkylbenzenes on hemopoiesis and bone marrow metabolism in rats. AMA Arch. Ind. Health13:468-474.
45.
Gerarde, H.W. (1960). Toxicology and Biochemistry of Aromatic Hydrocarbons . Elsevier Publishing Co., Amsterdam , pp. 148-149.
46.
Gerner-Smidt, P. and Friedrich, U. (1978). The mutagenic effect of benzene, toluene and xylene studied by the SCE technique. Mutat. Res. 58:313-316.
47.
Gibson, J.E. and Hardisty, J.F. (1983). Chronic toxicity and oncogenicity bioassay of inhaled toluene in Fischer-344 rats. Fund. Appl. Toxicol. 3:315.
48.
Greenberg, L., Mayers, M.R., Heimarin, H. and Moskowitz, S. (1942). The effects of exposure of toluene in industry . J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 118:573-578.
49.
Habara, T., Kobayashi, H., Higashihara, E., Kawamoto, T. and Sakai, T. (1984). Experimental study on the pulmonary absorption and excretion of toluene. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health53:337-344.
50.
Hasegawa, K., Shiojima, S., Koizumi, A. and Ikeda, M. (1983). Hippuric acid and o-cresol in the urine of workers exposed to toluene. Int. Arch. Occup. Health52:197-208.
51.
Horiguchi, S. and Inoue, K. (1977). Effects of toluene on the wheel-turning activity and peripheral blood findings in mice-an approach to the maximum allowable concentration of toluene. J. Toxicol. Sci. 2:363-372.
52.
Hudak, A. and Ungvary, G. (1978). Embryotoxic effects of benzene and its methyl derivatives: toluene, xylene. Toxicol. 11:55-63.
53.
Ikeda, M. (1974). Reciprocal metabolic inhibition of toluene and trichloroethylene in vivo and in vitro. Int. Arch. Arbeitsmed . 33:125-130.
54.
Ikeda, M. and Ohtsuji, H. (1971). Phenobarbital-induced protection against the toxicity of toluene and benzene in the rat. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol . 20:30-43.
55.
International Research And Development Corporation (Irdc) (1982). Subchronic inhalation toxicity test with toluene in rats. National Toxicology Program, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Report number 5701-113A, October 14.
56.
Jenkins, C.J., Jones, R.A. and Siegel, J. (1970). Long-term inhalation screening studies of benzene, toluene, o-xylene and cumene on experimental animals. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 16:818-823.
57.
Kimura, E., Ebert, D. and Dodge, P. (1971). Acute toxicity and limits of solvent residue for sixteen organic solvents. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 19:699-704.
58.
King, M.D. (1982). Neurological sequelae of toluene abuse. Human Toxicol. 1:281-287.
59.
Knox, J.W. and Nelson, J.R. (1966). Permanent encephalopathy from toluene inhalation. New Eng. J. Med. 275:1494-1496.
60.
Kocsis, J., Harkaway, S. and Snyder, R. (1968). Potentiating effect of dimethyl sulfoxide on the toxicity of various solvent hydrocarbons. Pharmacologist10:172.
61.
Kojima, T. and Kobayashi, H. (1973). Toxicological study on toluene concentration by inhalation. Correlation of toluene concentration for exposure with mortality and toluene level. Nippon Hoigaku Zasshi27:282-286.
62.
Krivanek, N. and Mullin, L.S. (1978). Comparison of conditioned avoidance and unconditioned reflex tests in rats exposed by inhalation to carbon monoxide, 1,1,1-tichloroethane, toluene and ethanol. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.45:357-358.
63.
Lazarew, N.W. (1929). On the toxicity of various hydrocarbon vapors, Naunym-Schmiedeb. Arch. Exp. Pathol. Pharmakol. 143:223-233.
64.
Lioy, P.J. and Lioy, M.J. (1983). Air Sampling Instruments for Evaluation of Atmospheric Contaminants, 6th Edition. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienist, Cincinnati, Ohio, pg. A-11, V-53, V-85 and V-96.
65.
Litt, I.F., Cohen, M.I., Schonberg, S.K. and Spigland, 1. ( 1972). Liver disease in the drug-using adolescent. J. Pediatrics.81:238-242.
66.
Longley, E.O., Jones, A.T., Welch, R. and Lomaev, O. (1967). Two acute toluene episodes in merchant ship. Arch. Environ. Health14:481-487.
67.
Lush, M., Oliver, J.S. and Watson, J.M. (1979). The analysis of blood in cases of suspected solvent abuse, with a review of results during the period October 1977 to July 1979 . In: Forsenic Toxicology (J.S. Oliver, ed.), Croom Helm, London , pp. 304-313.
68.
Maki-Paakkanen, J., Husgafvel-Pursiainen, K., Kalliomaki, P.-L., Tuominen, J. and Sorsa, M. (1980). Toluene-exposed workers and chromosome aberrations . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health6:775-781.
69.
Makshanova, E.I. and Omelyanchik, M.S. (1977). Zdravonokh. Beloruss. 4:81 cited in Sandmeyer (1981).
70.
Massengale, O.N., Glaser, H.H., Lelievre, R.E., Dodds, J.B. and Klock, M.E. (1963). Physical and psychologic factors in glue sniffing. New Engl. J. Med. 269:1340-1344.
71.
Morvail, V. and Hudak, A. (1976). Injuries caused by organic solvents with special reference to ECG changes. Acta Physiolog. Sci. Hungar. 48:242-243.
72.
Morvail, V., Hudak, A., Ungvary, G. and Varga, B. (1976). ECG changes in benzene, toluene and xylene poisoned rats. Acta Medica Academ. Sci. Hungar. 33:275-286.
73.
Mungikar, A.M. and Pawar, S.S. (1976). Hepatic microsomal mixed function oxidase system during toluene treatment and the effect of pretreatment of phenobarbital in adult rats. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 15:198-204.
74.
National Institute For Occupational Safety And Health (Niosh). (1973). Criteria for a recommended standard: occupational exposure to toluene. U.S. Dept. Health, Education and Welfare. Public Health Service.
75.
National Institute For Occupational Safety And Health (Niosh). (1977). Toluene, pp. S343-1 to 343-8 in NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods, 2nd Edition, Part II, Standards Completion Program Validated Methods, D.G. Taylor, Manual Coordinator, NIOSH Publication No. 77-157-C, U.S. Dept. Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, NIOSH, Cincinnati, Ohio.
76.
National Research Council. (1981). The Alkyl Benzenes, R. Snyder (Chairman), Committee on Alkyl Benzene Derivatives, Board on Toxicology and Environmental Health Hazards. National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press,Washington, D.C.
77.
Nomiyama, K. and Nomiyama, H.( 1974). Respiratory elimination of organic solvents in man: Benzene, toluene, n-hexane, trichloroethylene, acetone, ethyl acetate and ethyl alcohol . Int. Arch. Arbeitsmed. 32:85-91.
78.
Nomiyama, K. and Nomiyama, H. (1978). Three fatal cases of thinner-sniffing and experimental exposure to toluene in humans and animals. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health41:55-64.
79.
Ogata, M., Tomokuni, K. and Takatsuka, Y. (1970). Urinary excretion of hippuric acid and m- or p-methylhippuric acid in the urine of persons exposed to vapors of toluene and m- or p-xylene as a test of exposure. Brit. J. Ind. Med. 27:43-50.
80.
Ogata, M., Sugihara, R. and Kira, S. (1977). Quantitative determination of urinary hippuric and m- or p-methylhippuric acid as indices of toluene and m- or p-xylene exposure by high performance liquid chromatography. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health39:199-206.
81.
Pagnotto, L.D. and Lieberman, L.M. (1967). Urinary hippuric acid excretion as an index of toluene exposure. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 28:129-134.
82.
Peterson, R. and Bruckner, J. (1978). Animal models for studying the toxicological and pharmacological effects resulting from exposure to volatile substances. Final report. Contract 271-75-3067, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Rockville, MD.
83.
Pfaffli, P., Savolainen, H., Kalliomaki, P.L. and Kalliokoski, P. (1979). Urinary o-cresol in toluene exposure. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health5:286-289.
84.
Piotrowski, J.K. (1977). "Toluene in Exposure Tests for Organic Compounds in Industrial Toxicology." U.S. Government Printing Office , Washington, D.C., pp. 48-54.
85.
Pryor, G., Howd, R., Halik, R., Jensen, R. and Rebert, C. (1978). Biomedical studies on the effects of abused inhalant mixtures. Annual progress report. No. 2. Contract 271-77-3402, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Rockville, MD.
86.
Pyykko, K., Tahti, H. and Vapaatalo, H. (1977). Toluene concentrations in various tissues of rats after inhalation and oral administration. Arch. Toxicol. 38:169-176.
87.
Reynolds, E.S. (1972). Comparison of early injury to liver endoplasmic reticulum by halomethanes, hexachloroethane, benzene, toluene, bromobenzene, ethionine, thioacetamide and dimethylnitrosamine. Biochem. Pharmacol. 21:2555-2561.
88.
Rhudy, R.L. et al. (1978). Ninety-day subacute inhalation study with toluene in albino rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 45:284-285 (Abstract 150).
89.
Riihimaki, V. and Pfaffli, P. (1978). Percutaneous absorption of solvent vapors in man. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health4:73-85.
90.
Sandmeyer, E.E. (1981). Aromatic hydrocarbons in Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Vol. IIB, G.D. Clayton and F.E. Clayton (eds.). John Wiley, New York, pp. 3253-3431.
91.
Sasa, M., Igarashi, S., Miyazaki, T., Miyazaki, K., Nakano, S. and Mat-Suoka, I. (1978). Equilibrium disorders with diffuse brain atrophy in long-term toluene sniffing. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 221:163-169.
92.
Sato, A., Nakajima T., Fijiwara, Y. and Hirosawa, K. (1974). Pharmacokinetics of benzene and toluene. Int. Arch. Arbeitsmed. 33:169-182.
93.
Sato, A., Nakajima, T. and Fujiwara, F. (1975). Determination of benzene and toluene in blood by means of syringe-equilibration method using a small amount of blood. Brit . J. Ind. Med. 32:210-214.
94.
Sato, A. and Nakajima, T. (1979). Dose-dependent metabolic interaction between benzene and toluene in vivo and in vitro. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol . 48:249-256.
95.
Schumacher, H. and Grandjean, E. (1960). Narkotische wirksamkeit und die akute toxicitat von neun losungmitteln. Arch. Gewrbepath. Gewerbehyg. 18:109.
96.
Smith, J.N., Smithies, R.H. and Williams, R.T. (1954). Studies in detoxication. 55. The metabolism of alkylbenzenes. Biochem. J. 56:317-320.
97.
Smyth, H.F. and Smyth, JR, H.F. (1928). Inhalation experiments with certain lacquer solvents. J. Ind. Hyg. 10:261.
98.
Smyth, JR, H.F., Carpenter, C.P. , Weil, C.S., Pozzani , V.C., Striegel, J.A. and Nycum, J.S. (1969). Range-finding toxicity data: List VII. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 30:470-476.
99.
Snyder, R. and Remmer, H. (1982). Classes of hepatic microsomal mixed function oxidase inducers. In: Hepatic Cytochrome P-450 Monooxygenase System , J.B. Schenkman and D. Kupfer (eds.), International Encyclopedia of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Section 108. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 227-268.
100.
Sollenberg, J. and Baldsten, A.( 1977). Isotachophoretic analysis of mandelic acid, phenylglyoxylic acid, hippuric acid and methylhippuric acid in urine after occupational exposure to styrene, toluene and/or xylene. J. Chromatogr. 132:469-476.
101.
Speck, B. and Moeschlin, S. (1968). Effects of toluene, xylene, chloramphenicol and thiouracil on bone marrow. Schweiz, Med. Wochenschr. 98:1684-1686.
102.
Srbova, J. and Teisinger, J. (1952). Absorption and elimination of toluene in man. Prac. Lek4:41-47.
103.
Srbova, J. and Teisinger, J. (1953). On the metabolism of toluene. Prac. Lek5:259-263.
104.
Susten, A.S., Dames, B. and Niemeier, R.W. (1984). A direct method for the in vivo study of percutaneous absorption of volatile chemicals. Fed. Proced. 43:575, Abstract 1692.
105.
Svirbely, J.L., Dunn, R.C. and Von Oettingen, W.F. (1943). The acute toxicity of vapors of certain solvents containing appreciable amounts of benzene and toluene . J. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol. 25:366-373.
106.
Tahti, H., Ruuska, J. and Vapaatalo, H. (1977). Toluene toxicity studies on rats after one week inhalation exposure. Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol.41 (Suppl. 4):78.
107.
Takeuchi, Y. (1969). Experimental studies on the toluene poisoning-chiefly on the findings of peripheral blood and adrenal gland. Ind. Health7:31-45.
108.
Takeuchi, Y. and Hisanaga, N. (1977). The neurotoxicity of toluene: EEG changes in rats exposed to various concentrations. Brit. J. Ind. Med. 34:314-324.
109.
Takeuchi, Y.,Tanaka,T., Matumoto,T. and Matsushita, T.( 1972). Sangyo. Igaku14:543 cited in Sandmeyer (1981).
110.
Taylor, G. and Harris, W. (1970). Glue sniffing causes heart block in mice. Science170:866-868.
111.
Teisinger, J. and Srbova, J. (1955). Elimination of benzoic acid with the urine and its relation to the maximum tolerable toluene concentration in the air. Arch. Mal. Prof. Med. Trav. Secur. Soc. 16:216-220.
112.
Tomokuni, K. and Ogata, M. (1972). Direct colorimetric determination of hippuric acid in urine. Clinc. Chem. 18:349-351.
113.
Tsuruta, H. (1982). Percutaneous absorption of organic solvents. Ind . Health20:335- 345.
114.
Ungvary, G., Hudlik, A., Bors, Z. and Folly, G. (1976). The effect of toluene on the liver assayed by quantitative morphological methods. Exp. Molec. Pathol. 25:49-59.
115.
Ungvary, G., Tatrai, E., Szeberenyi, S., Rodics, K.; Lorincz, M. and Barcza, G. (1982). Effect of toluene exposure on the liver under different experimental conditions. Exp. Molec. Pathol. 36:347-360.
116.
Van Doorn, R., Bos, R.P., Brouns, R.M.E., Leijdekkers, C.-M. and Henderson, P.T. (1980). Effect of toluene and xylenes on liver glutathione and their urinary excretion as mercapturic acids in the rat. Arch. Toxicol. 43:293-304.
117.
Van Doorn, R., Leijdekkers, C.-M., Bos, R.P., Brouns, R.M.E. and Henderson, P.T. (1981). Alcohol and sulphate intermediates in the metabolism of toluene and xylenes to mercapturic acids. J. Appl. Toxicol . 1:236-242.
118.
Van Roosmalen, P.B. and Drummond, I. (1978). Simultaneous determination by gas chromatography of the major metabolites in urine of toluene, xylenes and styrene. Brit. J. Ind. Med. 35:56-60.
119.
Veulemans, H. and Masschelein, R. (1978). Experimental human exposure to toluene: factors influencing the individual respiratory uptake and elimination. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health42:91.
120.
Von Oettingen, W.F., Neal, P.A. and Donahue, D.D. (1942a). The toxicity and potential dangers of toluene . J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 118:579-584.
121.
Von Oettingen, W.F., Neal, P.A., Donahue, D.D., Svirbely, J.L., Baern-Stein, H.D., Monaco, A.R., Valaer, P.J. and Mitchell, J.L. (1942b). The toxicity and potential dangers of toluene, with special reference to its maximal permissible concentration. U.S. Public Health Bulletin No279. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 50 pp.
122.
Wahlberg, J. (1976). Percutaneous toxicity of solvents: A comparative investigation in the guinea pig with benzene, toluene and 1,1,2-tichloro-ethane . Ann. Occup. Hyg.19:115-119. White, I.D., Taylor, D.G., Mauer, P.A. and Kupel, R.E. (1970). A convenient optimized method for the analysis of selected vapors in the industrial atmosphere. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.25:464-469.
123.
Wilson, R.H. (1943). Toluene poisoning. J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 123:1106.
124.
Withey, J.R. and Hall, J.W. (1975). The joint toxic action on perchloroethylene with benzene or toluene. Toxicol. 4:5-15.
125.
Wolf, M.A., Rowe, V.K., Mccollister, D.D., Hollingsworth, R.C. and Oyen, F. (1956). Toxicological studies of certain alkylated benzenes and benzene. Arch. Ind. Health14:387-398.
