Nutrition labeling interventions are designed to provide consumers with easily interpretable nutritional information at the point of purchase. Despite the widespread implementation of these interventions and numerous research studies, there is little consensus as to their effect on consumer behavior. To address this issue, a novel methodology of second-order meta-analysis was utilized to provide a comprehensive synthesis of prior research on nutrition labeling effects. The difference in effects across published first-order meta-analyses was investigated based on whether the aim of the intervention was to prevent the consumption of unhealthy food or promote the consumption of healthy food (prevention vs. promotion focus). The extent to which the aim of the intervention impacts other intervention and study characteristics in study outcomes was additionally examined. Analysis of 93 first-order meta-analysis effect sizes highlighted differences according to whether the aim of the intervention was to prevent the consumption of unhealthy food or promote the consumption of healthy food. Differences were identified in the size of nutrition label effects for various label types, label location, and study and sample characteristics. In addition to important public policy implications, this research contributes to the ongoing discussion on the merits and limitations of meta-analysis methodology.
AgarwalD.RaviP.PurohitB.PriyaH. (2021), “The Effect of Energy and Fat Content Labeling on Food Consumption Pattern: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” Nutrition Reviews, 80 (3), 453–66.
2.
AkterT.ZebunnesaZ.HosenI.Al-MamunF.MamunM. (2022), “Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on BMI: Its Changes in Relation to Sociodemographic and Physical Activity Patterns Based on a Short Period,” PLoS ONE, 17 (3), e0266024.
3.
AnR.LiuJ.LiuR.BarkerA.R.FigueroaR.B.McBrideT.D. (2021), “Impact of Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Warning Labels on Consumer Behaviors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 60 (1), 115–26.
4.
AndréQ.ChandonP.HawsK. (2019), “Healthy Through Presence or Absence, Nature or Science? A Framework for Understanding Front-of-Package Food Claims,” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 38 (2), 172–91.
5.
ArnoA.ThomasS. (2016), “The Efficacy of Nudge Theory Strategies in Influencing Adult Dietary Behaviour: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” BMC Public Health, 16, 676.
Basto-AbreuA.Torres-AlvarezR.Reyes-SánchezF.González-MoralesR.Canto-OsorioF.ColcheroM.A.BarqueraS.RiveraJ.A.Barrientos-GutierrezT. (2020), “Predicting Obesity Reduction After Implementing Warning Labels in Mexico: A Modeling Study,” PLoS Medicine, 17 (7), e1003221.
8.
BentonD.YoungH.A. (2017), “Reducing Calorie Intake May Not Help You Lose Body Weight,” Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12 (5), 703–14.
9.
BinderA.NadererB.MatthesJ. (2020), “The Effects of Gain- and Loss-Framed Nutritional Messages on Children's Healthy Eating Behaviour,” Public Health Nutrition, 23 (10), 1726–34.
10.
BlockL.G.KellerP.A. (1995), “When to Accentuate the Negative: The Effects of Perceived Efficacy and Message Framing on Intentions to Perform a Health-Related Behavior,” Journal of Marketing Research, 32 (2), 192–203.
11.
BollingerB.LeslieP.SorensenA. (2011), “Calorie Posting in Chain Restaurants,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 3 (1), 91–128.
12.
BomP.R.RachingerH. (2020), “A Generalized-Weights Solution to Sample Overlap in Meta-Analysis,” Research Synthesis Methods, 11 (6), 812–32.
13.
BorgmeierI.WestenhoeferJ. (2009), “Impact of Different Food Label Formats on Healthiness Evaluation and Food Choice of Consumers: A Randomized-Controlled Study,” BMC Public Health, 9, 184.
14.
Brambila-MaciasJ.ShankarB.CapacciS.MazzocchiM.Perez-CuetoF.J.VerbekeW.TraillW.B. (2011), “Policy Interventions to Promote Healthy Eating: A Review of What Works, What Does Not, and What Is Promising,” Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 32 (4), 365–75.
15.
BrayG.A.TartagliaL.A. (2000), “Medicinal Strategies in the Treatment of Obesity,” Nature, 404 (6778), 672–77.
16.
BroersV.J.De BreuckerC.Van den BrouckeS.LuminetO. (2017), “A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Effectiveness of Nudging to Increase Fruit and Vegetable Choice,” European Journal of Public Health, 27 (5), 912–20.
17.
BurtonS.CreyerE.H.KeesJ.HugginsK. (2006), “Attacking the Obesity Epidemic: The Potential Health Benefits of Providing Nutrition Information in Restaurants,” American Journal of Public Health, 96 (9), 1669–75.
18.
BurtonS.KeesJ. (2012), “Flies in the Ointment? Addressing Potential Impediments to Population-Based Health Benefits of Restaurant Menu Labeling Initiatives,” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 31 (2), 232–39.
19.
CadarioR.ChandonP. (2020), “Which Healthy Eating Nudges Work Best? A Meta-Analysis of Field Experiments,” Marketing Science, 39 (3), 465–86.
20.
Cantu-JunglesT.M.McCormackL.A.SlavenJ.E.SlebodnikM.Eicher-MillerH.A. (2017), “A Meta-Analysis to Determine the Impact of Restaurant Menu Labeling on Calories and Nutrients (Ordered or Consumed) in US Adults,” Nutrients, 9 (10), 1088.
21.
CecchiniM.WarinL. (2016), “Impact of Food Labelling Systems on Food Choices and Eating Behaviours: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Studies,” Obesity Reviews, 17 (3), 201–10.
ChristophM.J.AnR. (2018), “Effect of Nutrition Labels on Dietary Quality Among College Students: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” Nutrition Reviews, 76 (3), 187–203.
24.
CohenJ. (2013), Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. Routledge.
25.
Common Sense Nutrition Disclosure Act (2017), H.R. 772, 115th Cong.
26.
CowburnG.StockleyL. (2005), “Consumer Understanding and Use of Nutrition Labelling: A Systematic Review,” Public Health Nutrition, 8 (1), 21–28.
27.
CrockettR.A.JebbS.A.HankinsM.MarteauT.M. (2014), “The Impact of Nutritional Labels and Socioeconomic Status on Energy Intake: An Experimental Field Study,” Appetite, 81, 12–19.
28.
CrockettR.A.KingS.E.MarteauT.M.PrevostA.T.BignardiG.RobertsN.W.StubbsB.HollandsG.J.JebbS.A. (2018), “Nutritional Labelling for Healthier Food or Non-Alcoholic Drink Purchasing and Consumption,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, CD009315.
29.
CrokerH.PackerJ.RussellS.J.StansfieldC.VinerR.M. (2020), “Front of Pack Nutritional Labelling Schemes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Recent Evidence Relating to Objectively Measured Consumption and Purchasing,” Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, 33 (4), 518–37.
30.
De BoerA. (2021), “Fifteen Years of Regulating Nutrition and Health Claims in Europe: The Past, the Present and the Future,” Nutrients, 13 (5), 1725.
31.
DixonH.ScullyM.MorleyB.WakefieldM. (2021), “Can Point-of-Sale Nutrition Information Encourage Reduced Preference for Sugary Drinks Among Adolescents?” Public Health Nutrition, 24 (13), 4023–34.
32.
DownsJ.S.WisdomJ.WansinkB.LoewensteinG. (2013), “Supplementing Menu Labeling with Calorie Recommendations to Test for Facilitation Effects,” American Journal of Public Health, 103 (9), 1604–09.
33.
DuboisP.AlbuquerqueP.AllaisO.BonnetC.BertailP.CombrisP.LahlouS.RigalN.RuffieuxB.ChandonP. (2021), “Effects of Front-of-Pack Labels on the Nutritional Quality of Supermarket Food Purchases: Evidence from a Large-Scale Randomized Controlled Trial,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 49, 119–38.
34.
DumanovskyT.HuangC.Y.NonasC.A.MatteT.D.BassettM.T.SilverL.D. (2011), “Changes in Energy Content of Lunchtime Purchases from Fast Food Restaurants After Introduction of Calorie Labelling: Cross Sectional Customer Surveys,” BMJ, 343, d4464.
35.
EggerM.SmithG.D.SchneiderM.MinderC. (1997), “Bias in Meta-Analysis Detected by a Simple, Graphical Test,” BMJ, 315, 629.
36.
EgurenJ.AntúnezL.OtterbringT.CurutchetM.R.AresG. (2021), “Health Gains Through Loss Frames: Testing the Effectiveness of Message Framing on Citizens’ Use of Nutritional Warnings,” Appetite, 166, 105469.
37.
EisendM. (2015), “Have We Progressed Marketing Knowledge? A Meta-Meta-Analysis of Effect Sizes in Marketing Research,” Journal of Marketing, 79 (3), 23–40.
38.
EisendM.TarrahiF. (2014), “Meta-Analysis Selection Bias in Marketing Research,” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 31 (3), 317–26.
39.
European Commission (2020), “Request for a Scientific Advice on the Development of Harmonised Mandatory Front-of-Pack Nutrition Labelling and the Setting of Nutrient Profiles for Restricting Nutrition and Health Claims on Foods,” (accessed July 12, 2022),https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/EFSA-Q-2021-00026_M-2021-0007.pdf.
FergusonC.J.KilburnJ. (2009), “The Public Health Risks of Media Violence: A Meta-Analytic Review,” Journal of Pediatrics, 154 (5), 759–63.
42.
FernandesA.C.OliveiraR.C.ProençaR.P.CurioniC.C.RodriguesV.M.FiatesG.M. (2016), “Influence of Menu Labeling on Food Choices in Real-Life Settings: A Systematic Review,” Nutrition Reviews, 74 (8), 534–48.
43.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2001), “Codex General Standard for the Labelling of Prepackaged Foods,” https://www.fao.org/3/y2770e/y2770e02.htm.
44.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2014), “The Second International Conference on Nutrition: Committing to a Future Free of Malnutrition.”
GaborA.M.StojnićB.OstićD.B. (2020), “Effects of Different Nutrition Labels on Visual Attention and Accuracy of Nutritional Quality Perception—Results of an Experimental Eye-Tracking Study,” Food Quality and Preference, 84, 103948.
47.
GallagherK.M.UpdegraffJ.A. (2012), “Health Message Framing Effects on Attitudes, Intentions, and Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Review,” Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 43 (1), 101–16.
48.
GarretsonJ.A.BurtonS. (2000), “Effects of Nutrition Facts Panel Values, Nutrition Claims, and Health Claims on Consumer Attitudes, Perceptions of Disease-Related Risks, and Trust,” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 19 (2), 213–27.
49.
GirzL.PolivyJ.HermanC.P.LeeH. (2012), “The Effects of Calorie Information on Food Selection and Intake,” International Journal of Obesity, 36 (10), 1340.
50.
Government of Canada (2018), “Canada Gazette, Part I, Volume 152, Number 6: Regulations Amending Certain Regulations Made Under the Food and Drugs Act (Nutrition Symbols, Other Labelling Provisions, Partially Hydrogenated Oils and Vitamin D),” (February 10),https://gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p1/2018/2018-02-10/html/reg2-eng.html.
51.
GrewalD.PuccinelliN.MonroeK.B. (2018), “Meta-Analysis: Integrating Accumulated Knowledge,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 46, 9–30.
52.
GrummonA.H.HallM.G. (2020), “Sugary Drink Warnings: A Meta-Analysis of Experimental Studies,” PLoS Medicine, 17 (5), e1003120.
53.
GuptaA.BillichN.GeorgeN.A.BlakeM.R.HuseO.BackholerK.Boelsen-RobinsonT.PeetersA. (2021), “The Effect of Front-of-Package Labels or Point-of-Sale Signage on Consumer Knowledge, Attitudes and Behavior Regarding Sugar-Sweetened Beverages: A Systematic Review,” Nutrition Reviews, 79 (10), 1165–81.
54.
HammondD.GoodmanS.HanningR.DanielS. (2013), “A Randomized Trial of Calorie Labeling on Menus,” Preventive Medicine, 57 (6), 860–66.
55.
HigginsE.T. (1997), “Beyond Pleasure and Pain,” American Psychologist, 52 (12), 1280–300.
56.
HigginsE.T. (1998), “Promotion and Prevention: Regulatory Focus as a Motivational Principle,” in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 30. Academic Press, 1–46.
57.
HiilamoH.CrosbieE.GlantzS.A. (2014), “The Evolution of Health Warning Labels on Cigarette Packs: The Role of Precedents, and Tobacco Industry Strategies to Block Diffusion,” Tobacco Control, 23, e2.
58.
HoldenS.ZlatevskaN.ParkinsonJ.CadarioR.DubelaarC.LeiJ.MooreE.SayarhN.Van KerckhoveA.WerleC. (2020), “Unpalatable Food for Thought: Let Marketing Research Guide Effective Public Obesity Interventions,” Obesity Reviews, 22 (2), e13141.
59.
HopwoodT.L.SchutteN.S. (2017), “Psychological Outcomes in Reaction to Media Exposure to Disasters and Large-Scale Violence: A Meta-Analysis,” Psychology of Violence, 7 (2), 316–27.
60.
HrubyA.HuF.B. (2015), “The Epidemiology of Obesity: A Big Picture,” Pharmaeconomics, 33 (7), 673–89.
61.
IkonenI.SotgiuF.AydinliA.VerleghP.W. (2020), “Consumer Effects of Front-of-Package Nutrition Labeling: An Interdisciplinary Meta-Analysis,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 48 (3), 360–83.
62.
IoannidisJ.P. (2009), “Integration of Evidence from Multiple Meta-Analyses: A Primer on Umbrella Reviews, Treatment Networks and Multiple Treatments Meta-Analyses,” Canadian Medical Association Journal, 181 (8), 488–93.
63.
KaurA.ScarboroughP.RaynerM. (2017), “A Systematic Review, and Meta-Analyses, of the Impact of Health-Related Claims on Dietary Choices,” International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 14, 93.
64.
KhandpurN.SatoP.D.M.MaisL.A.MartinsA.P.B.SpinilloC.G.GarciaM.T.RojasC.F.U.JaimeP.C. (2018), “Are Front-of-Package Warning Labels More Effective at Communicating Nutrition Information Than Traffic-Light Labels? A Randomized Controlled Experiment in a Brazilian Sample,” Nutrients, 10 (6), 688.
65.
KhandpurN.SwinburnB.MonteiroC.A. (2018), “Nutrient-Based Warning Labels May Help in the Pursuit of Healthy Diets,” Obesity, 26 (11), 1670–61.
66.
KozupJ.C.CreyerE.H.BurtonS. (2003), “Making Healthful Food Choices: The Influence of Health Claims and Nutrition Information on Consumers’ Evaluations of Packaged Food Products and Restaurant Menu Items,” Journal of Marketing, 67 (2), 19–34.
67.
LindeK.ClausiusN.RamirezG.MelchartD.EitelF.HedgesL.V.JonasW.B. (1997), “Are the Clinical Effects of Homoeopathy Placebo Effects? A Meta-Analysis of Placebo-Controlled Trials,” The Lancet, 350 (9081), 834–43.
68.
LittlewoodJ.A.LourençoS.IversenC.L.HansenG.L. (2016), “Menu Labelling Is Effective in Reducing Energy Ordered and Consumed: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Recent Studies,” Public Health Nutrition, 19 (12), 2106–21.
69.
LongM.W.TobiasD.K.CradockA.L.BatchelderH.GortmakerS.L. (2015), “Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Restaurant Menu Calorie Labeling,” American Journal of Public Health, 105 (5), e11–24.
70.
MichaudP.C.GoldmanD.P.LakdawallaD.N.ZhengY.GaileyA.H. (2012), “The Value of Medical and Pharmaceutical Interventions for Reducing Obesity,” Journal of Health Economics, 31 (4), 630–43.
71.
MoherD.LiberatiA.TetzlaffJ.AltmanD.G.GroupPrisma (2009), “Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement,” PLoS Medicine, 6 (7), e1000097.
72.
MozaffarianD.AngellS.LangT.RiveraJ. (2018), “Role of Government Policy in Nutrition—Barriers to and Opportunities for Healthier Eating,” BMJ, 361, k2426.
73.
NikolaouC.K.HankeyC.R.LeanM.E.J. (2014), “Preventing Weight Gain with Calorie-Labeling,” Obesity, 22 (11), 2277–83.
74.
Ni MhurchuC.EylesH.JiangY.BlakelyT. (2018), “Do Nutrition Labels Influence Healthier Food Choices? Analysis of Label Viewing Behaviour and Subsequent Food Purchases in a Labelling Intervention Trial,” Appetite, 121, 360–65.
75.
Ni MhurchuC.VolkovaE.JiangY.EylesH.MichieJ.NealB., etal (2017), “Effects of Interpretive Nutrition Labels on Consumer Food Purchases: The Starlight Randomized Controlled Trial,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 105 (3), 695–704.
76.
Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (1990), Pub. Law No. 101-535.
77.
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (2010), Pub. Law No. 111–148.
78.
PetersonR.A. (2001), “On the Use of College Students in Social Science Research: Insights from a Second-Order Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Consumer Research, 28 (3), 450–61.
79.
PichierriM.PinoG.PelusoA.M.GuidoG. (2020), “The Interplay Between Health Claim Type and Individual Regulatory Focus in Determining Consumers’ Intentions Toward Extra-Virgin Olive Oil,” Food Research International, 136, 109467.
PopkinB.M.DuS.GreenW.D.BeckM.A.AlgaithT.HerbstC.H.AlsukaitR.F.AlluhidanM.AlazemiN.ShekarM. (2020), “Individuals with Obesity and COVID-19: A Global Perspective on the Epidemiology and Biological Relationships,” Obesity Reviews, 21 (11), e13128.
82.
PopovaL. (2016), “Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Warning Labels: Lessons Learned from the Tobacco Industry,” Journal of the California Dental Association, 44 (10), 633–40.
83.
PRISMA (2018), “Transparent Reporting of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses,” (accessed August 3, 2018),http://prisma-statement.org/.
RaineK. (2005), “Determinant of Healthy Eating,” Canadian Journal of Public Health, 96 (3), S8–S14.
86.
RiefW.NestoriucY.WeissS.WelzelE.BarskyA.J.HofmannS.G. (2009), “Meta-Analysis of the Placebo Response in Antidepressant Trials,” Journal of Affective Disorders, 118 (1–3), 1–8.
87.
RobertoC.A.LarsenP.D.AgnewH.BaikJ.BrownellK.D. (2010), “Evaluating the Impact of Menu Labeling on Food Choices and Intake,” American Journal of Public Health, 100 (2), 312–18.
88.
RobertoC.A.ShivaramM.MartinezO.BolesC.HarrisJ.L.BrownellK.D. (2012), “The Smart Choices Front-of-Package Nutrition Label: Influence on Perceptions and Intake of Cereal,” Appetite, 58 (2), 651–57.
89.
RoeB.LevyA.S.DerbyB.M. (1999), “The Impact of Health Claims on Consumer Search and Product Evaluation Outcomes: Results from FDA Experimental Data,” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 18 (1), 89–105.
90.
RubinoD.M.GreenwayF.L.KhalidU.O’NeilP.M.RosenstockJ.SørrigR.WaddenT.A.WizertA.GarveyW.T. (2022), “Effect of Weekly Subcutaneous Semaglutide vs Daily Liraglutide on Body Weight in Adults with Overweight or Obesity Without Diabetes: The STEP 8 Randomized Clinical Trial,” JAMA, 327 (2), 138–50.
91.
SacksG.VeermanJ.L.MoodieM.SwinburnB. (2011), “‘Traffic-Light’ Nutrition Labelling and ‘Junk-Food’ Tax: A Modelled Comparison of Cost-Effectiveness for Obesity Prevention,” International Journal of Obesity, 35 (7), 1001–09.
92.
SanjariS.S.JahnS.BoztugY. (2017), “Dual-Process Theory and Consumer Response to Front-of-Package Nutrition Label Formats,” Nutrition Reviews, 75 (11), 871–82.
93.
ScapinT.FernandesA.C.CurioniC.C.PettigrewS.NealB.CoyleD.H.RodriguesV.M.BernardoG.L.UggioniP.L.ProençaR.P.C. (2021), “Influence of Sugar Label Formats on Consumer Understanding and Amount of Sugar in Food Choices: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses,” Nutrition Reviews, 79 (7), 788–801.
94.
SchmidtF.L.OhI.S. (2013), “Methods for Second Order Meta-Analysis and Illustrative Applications,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 121 (2), 204–18.
95.
SchubertE.SmithE.BrydevallM.LynchC.RinginE.DixonH.KashimaY.WakefieldM.BodeS. (2021), “General and Specific Graphic Health Warning Labels Reduce Willingness to Consume Sugar-Sweetened Beverages,” Appetite, 161, 105141.
96.
SchwartzJ.RiisJ.ElbelB.ArielyD. (2012), “Inviting Consumers to Downsize Fast-Food Portions Significantly Reduces Calorie Consumption,” Health Affairs, 31 (2), 399–407.
97.
ScottV.WorsleyA.F. (1994), “Ticks, Claims, Tables and Food Groups: A Comparison for Nutrition Labelling,” Health Promotion International, 9 (1), 27–37.
98.
SeyedhamzehS.BagheriM.KeshtkarA.A.QorbaniM.VieraA.J. (2018), “Physical Activity Equivalent Labeling vs. Calorie Labeling: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 15 (1), 88.
99.
ShangguanS.AfshinA.ShulkinM.MaW.MarsdenD.SmithJ.Saheb-KashafM.ShiP.MichaR.ImamuraF.MozaffarianD. (2019), “A Meta-Analysis of Food Labeling Effects on Consumer Diet Behaviors and Industry Practices,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 56 (2), 300–314.
100.
SheeranP. (2002), “Intention–Behavior Relations: A Conceptual and Empirical Review,” European Review of Social Psychology, 12, 1–36.
101.
ShemiltI.HendryV.MarteauT.M. (2017), “What Do We Know About the Effects of Exposure to ‘Low Alcohol’ and Equivalent Product Labelling on the Amounts of Alcohol, Food and Tobacco People Select and Consume? A Systematic Review,” BMC Public Health, 17 (1), 29.
102.
ShimulA.S.CheahI.LouA.J. (2021), “Regulatory Focus and Junk Food Avoidance: The Influence of Health Consciousness, Perceived Risk and Message Framing,” Appetite, 166, 105428.
103.
SimonnetA.ChetbounM.PoissyJ.RaverdyV.NouletteJ.DuhamelA.LabreucheJ.MathieuD.PattouF.JourdainM. (2020), “High Prevalence of Obesity in Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) Requiring Invasive Mechanical Ventilation,” Obesity, 28 (7), 1195–99.
104.
SinclairS.E.CooperM.MansfieldE.D. (2014), “The Influence of Menu Labeling on Calories Selected or Consumed: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 114 (9), 1375–88.
105.
SongJ.BrownM.K.TanM.MacGregorG.A.WebsterJ.CampbellN.R.TrieuK.Ni MhurchuC.CobbL.K.HeF.J. (2021), “Impact of Color-Coded and Warning Nutrition Labelling Schemes: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis,” PLoS Medicine, 18 (10), e1003765.
106.
StanleyT.D.DoucouliagosH. (2012), Meta-Regression Analysis in Economics and Business. Routledge.
107.
StanleyT.D.DoucouliagosH. (2015), “Neither Fixed nor Random: Weighted Least Squares Meta-Analysis,” Statistics in Medicine, 34 (13), 2116–27.
108.
StegengaJ. (2011), “Is Meta-Analysis the Platinum Standard of Evidence?” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 42 (4), 497–507.
109.
SterneJ.A.EggerM. (2001), “Funnel Plots for Detecting Bias in Meta-Analysis: Guidelines on Choice of Axis,” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 54 (10), 1046–55.
110.
TangariA.H.BuiM.HawsK.L.LiuP.J. (2019), “That’s Not So Bad, I’ll Eat More! Backfire Effects of Calories-per-Serving Information on Snack Consumption,” Journal of Marketing, 83 (1), 133–50.
111.
TeislM.F.BockstaelN.E.LevyA. (2001), “Measuring the Welfare Effects of Nutrition Information,” American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 83 (1), 133–49.
112.
UpadhyayJ.FarrO.PerakakisN.GhalyW.MantzorosC. (2018), “Obesity as a Disease,” Medical Clinics, 102 (1), 13–33.
113.
Van TrijpH.C.Van der LansI.A. (2007), “Consumer Perceptions of Nutrition and Health Claims,” Appetite, 48 (3), 305–24.
114.
WansinkB. (2003), “How Do Front and Back Package Labels Influence Beliefs About Health Claims?” Journal of Consumer Affairs, 37 (2), 305–16.
115.
WansinkB.ChandonP. (2006), “Can ‘Low-Fat’ Nutrition Labels Lead to Obesity?” Journal of Marketing Research, 43 (4), 605–17.
116.
WansinkB.SonkaS.T.HaslerC.M. (2004), “Front-Label Health Claims: When Less Is More,” Food Policy, 29 (6), 659–67.
117.
WilliamsS.L.MummeryK.W. (2013), “Characteristics of Consumers Using ‘Better for You’ Front-of-Pack Food Labelling Schemes—an Example from the Australian Heart Foundation Tick,” Public Health Nutrition, 16 (12), 2265–72.
118.
World Health Organization (2021), “Implementing Nutrition Labelling Policies: A Review of Contextual Factors.”
119.
WyseR.JacksonJ.K.DelaneyT.GradyA.StaceyF.WolfendenL.BarnesC.McLaughlinM.YoongS.L. (2021), “The Effectiveness of Interventions Delivered Using Digital Food Environments to Encourage Healthy Food Choices: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” Nutrients, 13 (1), 22–55.
120.
ZlatevskaN.NeumannN.DubelaarC. (2018), “Mandatory Calorie Disclosure: A Comprehensive Analysis of Its Effect on Consumers and Retailers,” Journal of Retailing, 94 (1), 89–101.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
