Adolescents become vulnerable to developing eating disorders as they mature. Very little is known about the prevalence, etiology, assessment, treatment, and outcome of eating disorders among adolescents. In general, research on eating disorders continues to be plagued with design flaws. Future studies need to be prospective research based on larger, more diverse samples of adolescents that represent all developmental stages of adolescence. Consistent diagnostic criteria and definitions of treatment interventions and outcomes also need to be employed. In addition, research should address the identification of protective and risk factors that predict who will actually develop an eating disorder.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000a). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders-Text revision (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
2.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000b). Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with eating disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(Suppl 1), 1-39.
3.
Ampollini, P., Marchesi, C., Gariboldi, S., Cella, P., Bertacca, S. G., & Borghi, C., et al. (1999). The Parma high school epidemiological survey: Eating behaviors [Letter to the editor]. Journal of Adolescent Health, 24, 157.
4.
Antisdel, J. E., & Chrisler, J. C. (2000). Comparison of eating attitudes and behaviors among adolescent and young women with Type 1 diabetes mellitus and phenylketonuria. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 21(2), 81-86.
5.
Atti, H., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1989). Development of eating problems in adolescent girls: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 25, 70-79.
6.
Becker, A. E., Grinspoon, S. K., Klibanski, A., & Herzog, D. B. (1999). Eating disorders. New England Journal of Medicine, 340, 1092-1098.
7.
Bosch, X. (2000). Eating disorders upset Spain. Journal of the American Medical Association, 283, 1405-1410.
8.
Brownell, K. D., & Rodin, J. (1992). Eating, body weight and performance in athletes. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.
9.
Carlat, D. J., & Camargo, C. A. (1991). Review of bulimia nervosa in males. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 831-843.
10.
Carter, J. C., Stewart, D. A., & Fairburn, C. G. (2001). Eating Disorder Examination Questionaire: Norms for young adolescent girls. Behavior Research and Therapy, 39, 625-632.
11.
Cauffman, E., & Steinberg, L. (1996). Interactive effects of menarcheal status and dating on dieting and disordered eating among adolescent girls. Developmental Psychology, 32, 631-635.
12.
Chun, Z. F., Mitchell, J. E., Li, K., Yu, W. M., Lan, Y. D., Jun, Z., et al. (1992). The prevalence of anorexia nervosa and bulimia among freshman medical college students in China. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 12, 209-214.
13.
Cummins, P. N. (1996). Preparing clients with eating disorders for group counseling: A multimedia approach. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 21, 4-10.
14.
Daneman, D., & Rodin, G. (1999). Eating disorders in young women with Type 1 diabetes: A cause for concern? Acta Paediatrica, 88, 117-119.
15.
Fairburn, C. G. (1993). Interpersonal psychotherapy for bulimia nervosa. In G. L. Klerman & M. M. Weissman (Eds.), New applications of interpersonal psychotherapy (pp. 353-378). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
16.
Fairburn, C. G., & Cooper, Z. (1993). The eating disorder examination. In C. G. Fairburn & G. T. Wilson (Eds.), Binge eating, nature, assessment, and treatment (pp. 333-360). New York: Guilford.
17.
Fairburn, C. G., Shafran, R., & Cooper, Z. (1999). A cognitive behavioural theory of anorexia nervosa. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 1-13.
18.
Ferguson, C. P., & Pigott, T. A. (2000). Anorexia & bulimia nervosa: Neurobiology and pharmacotherapy. Behavior Therapy, 31, 237-263.
19.
Fisher, M., Golden, N. H., Katzman, D. K., Kreipe, R. E., Rees, J., Schebendach, J., et al. (1995). Eating disorders in adolescents: A background paper. Journal of Adolescent Health, 16, 420-437.
20.
Fisher, M., Schneider, M., Burns, J., Symons, H., & Mandel, F. S. (2001). Differences between adolescents and young adults at presentation to an eating disorders program. Journal of Adolescent Health, 28, 222-227.
21.
Flament, M., Ledoux, S., Jeammet, P., Choquet, M., & Simon, Y. (1995). A population study of bulimia nervosa and subclinical eating disorders in adolescence. In H. C. Steinhausen, (Ed.), Eating disorders in adolescence: Anorexia and bulimia nervosa (pp. 21-36). New York: De Gruyter.
22.
Fluoxetine Bulimia Nervosa Collaborative Study Group. (1992). Fluoxetine in the treatment of bulimia nervosa. A multicenter double-blind trial. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 139-147.
23.
Franko, D. L., & Orosan-Weine, P. (1998). The prevention of eating disorders: Empirical, methodological, and conceptual considerations. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 4, 459-477.
24.
French, S. A., Leffert, N., Stony, J., Newmark-Sztainer, D., Hannon, P., & Benson, P. L. (2001). Adolescent binge/purge and weight loss behaviors: associations with developmental assets. Journal of Adolescent Health, 28, 211-221.
25.
Garner, D. M. (1995). Measurement of eating disorder psychopathology. In K. D. Brownell & C. G. Fairburn (Eds.), Eating disorders and obesity: A comprehensive handbook (pp. 117-121). New York: Guilford.
26.
Golden, N. H. (1997). The adolescent: Vulnerable to develop an eating disorder and at high risk for long-term sequelae. Annals New York Academy of Sciences, 817, 94-97.
27.
Götestam, K. G., Eriksen, L., & Hagen, H. (1995). An epidemiological study of eating dsorders in Norwegian psychiatric institutions. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 18, 263-268.
28.
Gowers, S. G., Weetman, J., Shore, A., Hossain, F., & Elvins, R. (2000). Impact of hospitalization on the outcome of adolescent anorexia nervosa. British Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 138-141.
29.
Graber, J. A., Brooks-Gunn, J., Paikoff, R. L., & Warren, M. P. (1994). Prediction of eating problems: An 8-year study of adolescent girls. Developmental Psychology, 30, 823-834.
30.
Graber, J. A., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Warren, M. P. (1999). The vulnerable transition: Puberty and the development of eating pathology and negative mood. Women's Health Issues, 9, 107-114.
31.
Granner, M. L., Abood, D. A., & Black, D. R. (2001). Racial differences in eating disordred attitudes, cigarette, and alcohol use. American Journal of Health Behavior, 25(2), 83-99.
32.
Gross, S. M., Ireys, H. T., & Kinsman, S. L. (2000). Young women with physical disabilities: Risk factors for symptoms of eating disorders. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 21(2), 87-96.
33.
Hay, P. (1998). The epidemiology of eating disorder behaviors: An Australian community-based survey. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 23, 371-382.
34.
Herzog, W., Schellenberg, D., & Deter, H. (1997). First recovery in anorexia nervosa patients in the long-term course: A discrete-time survival analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 169-177.
35.
Jarman, M., & Walsh, S. (1999). Evaluating recovery from anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: Integrating lessons learned from research and clinical practice. Clinical Psychology Review, 19, 773-788.
36.
Kaplowitz, P. B., Slora, E. J., Wasserman, R. C., Pedlow, S. E., & Herman-Giddens, M. E. (2001). Earlier onset of puberty in girls: Relation to increased body mass index and race. Pediatrics, 108, 347-353.
37.
Kaye, W., Kaplan, A. S., & Zucker, M. L. (1996). Treating eating disorder patients in a managed care environment. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 19, 793-810.
38.
Kaye, W., Strober, M., Stein, D., & Gendall, K. (1999). New directions in the treatment research of anorexia and bulimia nervosa. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 1285-1292.
39.
Khan, Y., & Montgomery, M. J. (1996). Eating attitudes in young females with diabetes: Insulin omission identifies a vunerable subgroup. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 69, 343-353.
40.
Khandelwal, S. K., Sharan, P., & Saxena, S. (1995). Eating disorders: An Indian perspective. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 41, 132-146.
41.
Krüger, S., McVey, G., & Kennedy, S. H. (1998). The changing profile of anorexia nervosa at the Toronto programme for eating disorders. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 45, 533-547.
42.
Lask, B., Waugh R., & Gordon, I. (1997). Childhood-onset anorexia nervosa is a serious illness. Annals New York Academy of Sciences, 817, 120-126.
43.
Lee, S., & Lee, A. M. (2000). Disordered eating in three communities of China: A comparative study of female high school students in Hong, Kong, Shenzhen, and rural Hunan. The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27, 317-327.
44.
Leon, G. R., Fulkerson, J. A., Perry, C. L., & Cudek, R. (1993). Personality and behavioral vulnerabilities associated with risk status for eating disorders in adolescent girls. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 438-444.
45.
Leon, G. R., Fulkerson, J. A., Perry, C. L. K., & Early-Zald, M. B. (1995). Perspective analysis of personality and behavioral vulnerabilities and gender influences in the later development of disordered eating. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 140-149.
46.
Lester, R., & Petrie, T. A. (1998). Physical, psychological and societal correlates of bulimic symptomatology among African-American college women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 315-321.
47.
Lilenfeld, L. R., Kaye, W. H., Greeno, C. G., Merikangas, K. R., Plotnicov, K., Pollice, C., et al. (1998). A controlled family study of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: psychiatric disorders in first-degree relatives and effects of proband comorbidity. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 603-610.
48.
Lucas, A. R., Beard, C. M., O'Fallon, W. M., & Kurland, L. T. (1991). 50-year trends in the incidence of anorexia nervosa in Rochester, Minnesota: A population-based study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 917-922.
49.
Miller, M. N., Verhegge, R., & Miller, B. E. (1999). Assessment risk of eating disorders among adolescents in Appalachia. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 437-443.
50.
Mintz, L. B., & Kashubeck, S. (1999). Body image and disordered eating among Asian-American and Caucasian college students: An examination of race and gender differences. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 23, 781-796.
51.
Mitchell, J. E., Tareen, B., Sheehan, W., Agras, S., Brewerton, T. D., Crow, S., et al. (2000). Establishing guidelines for pharmacotherapy trials in bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 28, 1-7.
52.
Morandé, G., Celada, J., & Casas, J. J. (1999). Prevalence of eating disorders in a Spanish school-age population. Journal of Adolescent Health, 24, 212-219.
53.
Mulholland, A. M., & Mintz, L. B. (2001). Prevalence of eating disorders among African American women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 48, 111-116.
54.
Nadaoka, T., Oiji, A., Takahashi, S., Morioka, Y., & Kashiwakura, M. (1996). An epidemiologic study of eating disorders in a northern area of Japan. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 93, 305-310.
55.
The National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study Research Group. (1992). Obesity and cardiovascular disease risk factors in Black and White girls: The NHLBI Growth and Health Study. American Journal of Public Health, 82, 1613-1620.
56.
Panagiotopoulos, C., McCrindle, B. W., Hick, K., & Katzman, D. K. (2000). Electrocardiographic findings in adolescents with eating disorders. Pediatrics, 105, 1100-1105.
57.
Pryor, T., & Wiederman, M. W. (1998). Personality features and expressed concerns of adolescents with eating disorders. Adolescence, 33(130), 291-300.
58.
Robin, A. L., Gilroy, M., & Dennis, A. B. (1998). Treatment of eating disorders in children and adolescents. Clinical Psychology Review, 18, 421-446.
59.
Robinson, T. N., Killen, J. D., Litt, I. F., Hammer, L. D., Wilson, D. M., Haydel, et al. (1996). Ethnicity and body dissatisfaction: Are Hispanic and Asian girls at increased risk for eating disorders? Journal of Adolescent Health, 19(6), 384-393.
60.
Safer, D. L., Telch, C. F., & Agras, W. S. (2001). Dialectial behavior therapy for bulimia nervosa. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 632-634.
61.
Santonastaso, P., Zanetti, T., Sala, A., Favaretto, G., Vidotto, G., & Favoro, A. (1996). Prevalence of eating disorders in Italy: A survey on a sample of 16-year-old female students. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 65, 158-162.
62.
Sharp, C. W., Clark, S. A., Dunan, J. R., Blackwood, D. H. R., & Shapiro, C. M. (1994). Clinical presentation. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 15, 125-134.
63.
Siever, M. D. (1994). Sexual orientation and gender as factors in socioculturally acquired vulnerability to body dissatisfaction and eating disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 252-260.
64.
Smolak, L., Murnen, S., & Ruble, A. E. (2000). Female athletes and eating problems: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27, 371-380.
65.
Soyka, L. A., Grinspoon, S., Levitsky, L. L., Herzog, D. B., & Kilbanski, A. (1999). The effects of anorexia nervosa on bone metabolism in female adolescents. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 84, 3389-4496.
66.
Steiner, H., & Lock, J. (1998). Anoerxia nervosa and bulimia nervosa in children and adolescents: A review of the last 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 352-359.
67.
Steinhausen, H. (1997). Annotation: Outcome of anorexia nervosa in the younger patient. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 271-276.
68.
Stice, E., & Bearman, S. K. (2001). Body-image and eating disturbances prospectively predict increases in depressive symptoms in adolescent girls: A growth curve analysis. Developmental Psychology, 37, 597-607.
69.
Stice, E., Presnell, K., & Bearman, S. K. (2001). Relation of early menarche to depression, eating disorders, substance abuse, and comorbid psychopathology among adolescent girls. Developmental Psychology, 37, 608-619.
70.
Stice, E., Telch, C., & Rizvi, S. L. (2000). Development and validation of the Eating Disorder Diagnostic Scale: A brief self-report measure of anorexia, bulimia, and binge-eating disorder. Psychological Assessment, 12, 123-131.
71.
Striegel-Moore, R. H. (1997). Risk factors for eating disorders. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences, 817, 98-109.
72.
Striegel-Moore, R. H., Dohm, F., Solomon, E. E., Fairburn, C. G., Pike, K. M., & Wilfley, D. E. (2000). Subthreshold binge eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27, 270-278.
73.
Striegel-Moore, R. H., Leslie, D., Petrill, S. A., Garvin, V., & Rosenheck, R. A. (2000). One-year use and cost of inpatient and outpatient services among female and male patients with an eating disorder: Evidence from a national database of health insurance claims. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27, 381-389.
74.
Striegel-Moore, R. H., Schreiber, G. B., Lo, A., Crawford, P., Obarzanek, E., & Rodin, J. (2000). Eating disorder symptoms in a chohort of 11 to 16-year-old Black and White girls: The NHLBI Growth and Health Study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27, 49-66.
75.
Striegel-Moore, R. H., Silberstein, L. R., & Rodin, J. (1986). Toward an understanding of risk factors for bulimia. American Psychologist, 41, 246-263.
76.
Striegel-Moore, R. H., Wilfley, D. E., Pike, K. M., Dohm, F., & Fairburn, C. G. (2000). Recurrent binge eating in Black American women. Archives of Family Medicine, 9, 83-87.
77.
Strong, S. M., Williamson, D. A., Netemeyer, R. G., & Geer, J. H. (2000). Eating disorder symptoms and concerns about body differ as a function of gender and sexual orientation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 240-255.
78.
Sundgot-Borgen, J. (1999). Eating disorders among male and female elite athletes. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 33, 434.
79.
Thelen, M. H., Farmer, J., Wonderlich, S., & Smith, M. (1991). A revision of the Bulimia test: The BULIT-R. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 3, 119-124.
80.
Thelen, M. H., Mintz, L. B., & Vander Wal, J. S. (1996). The Bulimia Test-Revised: Validation with DSM-IV: criteria for bulimia nervosa. Psychological Assessment, 8, 219-221.
81.
Tomori, M., & Rus-Makovec, M. (2000). Eating behavior, depression and self-esteem in high school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 26, 361-367.
82.
Turner, J., Batik, M., & Palmer, L. J. (2000). Detection and importance of laxative use in adolescents with anorexia nervosa. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 378-385.
83.
Ung, E. K., & Lee, D. S. (1999). Thin desires and fat realities. Singapore Medical Journal, 40(13), 495-497.
84.
United Nations Children's Fund. (2000). Maps. State of the world's children: 2000. United Nations Children's Fund. Retrieved May 22, 2001, from http:\www.unicef.org/sowcOO/map/.htm
85.
Vitiello, B., & Lederhendler, I. (2000). Research on eating disorders: Current status and future prospects. Biological Psychiatry, 47, 777-786.
86.
Wade, T., Bulik, C. M., Sullivan, P. F., Neal, M. C., & Kendler, K. S. (2000). The relation between risk factors for binge eating and bulimia nervosa: A population based female twin study. Health Psychology, 19, 115-123.
87.
Wade, T., Martin, N. G., Tiggemann, M., Abraham, S., Treloar, S. A., & Heath, A. C. (2000). Genetic and environmental risk factors shared between disordered eating, psychological and family variables. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 729-740.
88.
Walsh, B. T., Wilson, G. T., Loeb, K. L., Devlin, M. J., Pike, K. M., Roose, S. P., et al. (1997). Medication and psychotherapy in the treatment of bulimia nervosa. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 523-531.
89.
Walters, E. E., Neale, M. C., Eaves, L. J., Heath, A. C., Kessler, R. C., & Kendler, K. S. (1992). Bulimia nervosa and major depression: A study of common genetic and environmental factors. Psychological Medicine, 22, 617-722.
90.
Warheit, G., Langer, L., Zimmerman, R., & Biafora, F. (1993) Prevalence of bulimic behaviors and bulimia among a sample of the general population. American Journal of Epidemiology, 137, 569-576.
91.
Willcox, M., & Sattler, D. N. (1996). The relationship between eating disorders and depression. The Journal of Social Psychology, 136, 269-271.
92.
Williamson, D. A., Thaw, J. M., & Varnado-Sullivan, P. J. (2001). Cost effective analysis of a hospital-based cognitive-behavioral treatment program for eating disorders. Behavior Therapy, 32, 459-477.
93.
Wonderlich, S. A., Brewerton, T. D., Jocic, Z., Dansky, B. S., & Abbott, D. W. (1997). Relationship of childhood sexual abuse and eating disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1107-1115.
94.
Woodside, D. B., Garfenkel, P. E., Lin, E., Goering, P. L., Kaplan, A. A., Goldbloom, D. S., et al. (2001). Comparison of men with full or partial eating disorders, men without eating disorders, and women with eating disorders in the community. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 570-574.
95.
World Health Organization. (1993). International classification of diseases (10th ed., pp. 112-113). Geneva: Author.
96.
Zhang, A. Y., & Snowden, L. R. (1999). Ethnic characteristics of mental disorders in five U. S. communities. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 5, 134-146.
97.
Ziesat, H. A., & Ferguson, J. M. (1984). Outpatient treatment of primary anorexia nervosa in adult males. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40, 680-690.
