Resource programs, sometimes called pull-out programs, have been widely criticized recently. Several professionals have asserted that programs that pull students out of general classrooms for special instruction have for the most part failed to meet the needs of these students. As an alternative to pull-out programs, many professionals recommend that students who have problems be educated full-time in general classrooms. This article provides a critical inspection of resource programs. The resource program model is first described. This is followed by a critical analysis of these programs and some suggestions for future directions.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Affleck, J.Q., Lehning, T.W., & Brow, K.D. (1973). Expanding the resource concept: The resource school . Exceptional Children, 39, 446-453.
2.
Affleck, J.Q., Madge, S., Adams, A., & Lowenbraun, S. (1988). Integrated classroom versus resource model: Academic viability and effectiveness. Exceptional Children, 54, 339-348.
3.
Algozzine, B., Morsink, C.V., & Algozzine, K.M. (1988). What's happening in self-contained special education classrooms? Exceptional Children, 55, 259-265.
4.
Barksdale, M.W., & Atkinson, A.P. (1971). A resource room approach to instruction for the educable mentally retarded. Focus on Exceptional Children, 3(4), 12-15.
5.
Becker, L.D. (1978). Learning characteristics of educationally handicapped and retarded children. Exceptional Children, 44, 502-511.
6.
Bersoff, D.N., Kabler, M., Fiscus, E., & Ankney, R. (1972). Effectiveness of special class placement for children labeled neurologically handicapped. Journal of School Psychology , 10, 157-163.
7.
Bigge, J. (1988). Curriculum based instruction for special education students. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield .
8.
Biklen, D. (1985). Achieving the complete school: Strategies for effective mainstreaming. New York: Teachers College Press.
9.
Biklen, D., & Zollers, N. (1986). The focus of advocacy in the LD field. journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 579-586.
10.
Braaten, S., Kauffman, J.M., Braaten, B., Polsgrove, L., & Nelson, C.M. (1988). The Regular Education Initiative: Patent medicine for behavioral disorders. Exceptional Children, 55, 21-27.
11.
Budoff, M., & Gottlieb, J. (1976). Special-class EMR children mainstreamed: A study of an aptitude (learning potential) X treatment interaction. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 81, 1-11.
12.
Carroll, A.W. (1967). The effects of segregated and partially integrated school programs on self-concept and academic achievement of educable mental retardates. Exceptional Children, 34, 93-99.
13.
Carter, J.L. (1975). Intelligence and reading achievement of EMR children in three educational settings. Mental Retardation, 95, 26-27.
14.
Cegelka, W.J., & Tyler, J.L. (1970). The efficacy of special class placement for the mentally retarded in proper perspective. Training School Bulletin , 67, 33-68.
15.
Chaffin, J.D. (1974). Will the real "mainstreaming" program please stand up! (or ... Should Dunn have done it?). Focus on Exceptional Children, 6(5), 1-18.
16.
Christopolos, F., & Renz, P. (1969). A critical evaluation of special education programs . The Journal of Special Education, 3, 371-379.
17.
Coleman, J.M. (1983a). Self-concept and the mildly handicapped : The role of social comparisons. The Journal of Special Education , 17, 37-45.
18.
Coleman, J.M. (1983b). Handicapped labels and instructional segregation: Influences on children's self-concepts versus the perceptions of others. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6(1), 3-11.
19.
Cox, L.M., & Wilson, A.P. (1981). A comparison of academic gains in reading among mildly learning disabled students in three program structures. Reading Improvement, 18, 132-156.
20.
Cullinan, D., Epstein, M.H., & Dembinski, R.J. (1979). Behavior problems of educationally handicapped and normal pupils. journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 7, 495-502.
21.
Deno, E. (1973). Instructional alternatives for exceptional children . Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.
22.
Dunn, L.M. (1968). Special education for the mildly retarded- Is much of it justifiable? Exceptional Children, 35, 5-22.
23.
Engelmann, S., & Bruner, E.C. (1974). DISTAR: An instructional system: Reading I. Chicago: Science Research Associates.
24.
Engelmann, S., & Bruner, E.C. (1975). DISTAR: An instructional system: Reading II. Chicago: Science Research Associates.
25.
Epstein, M.H., & Cullinan, D. (1983). Academic performance of behaviorally disordered and learning-disabled pupils. The Journal of Special Education , 17, 303-307.
26.
Fernald, G. (1988). Remedial techniques in basic school subjects (Ed. by L. Idol). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
27.
Flynn, T.M. (1970). The effect of a part time special education program on the adjustment of EMR students. Exceptional Children, 36, 680-681.
28.
Frampton, M.E., & Gall, E.D. (Eds.). (1955). Special education for the exceptional. Boston: Porter Sargent.
29.
Frampton, M.E., & Rowell, H.H. (1940). Education of the handicapped (Vol. 2). Yonkers, NY: World Book.
Gajar, A.H. (1980). Characteristics across exceptional categories: EMR, LD, and ED. The Journal of Special Education, 14, 165-173.
32.
Gampel, D.H., Gottlieb, J., & Harrison, R.H. (1974). Comparison of classroom behavior of special-class EMR, integrated EMR, low IQ, and nonretarded children . American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 79, 16-21.
33.
Garrison, M., & Hammill, D.D. (1971). Who are the retarded?Exceptional Children, 38, 13-20.
34.
Gartner, A. (1986). Disabling help: Special education at the crossroads . Exceptional Children, 53, 72-76.
35.
Gartner, A., & Lipsky, D.K. (1987). Beyond special education: Toward a quality system for all students. Harvard Educational Review, 57, 367-395.
36.
Glavin, J.P. (1974). Behaviorally oriented resource rooms: A follow-up . The Journal of Special Education, 8, 337-347.
37.
Glavin, J.P., Quay, J.C., Annesley, F.R., & Werry, J.S. (1971). An experimental resource room for behavior problem children. Exceptional Children, 38, 131-137.
38.
Gottlieb, J., Alter, M., & Gottlieb, B.W. (1983). Mainstreaming mentally retarded children. In J.L. Matson & J.A. Mulick (Eds.), Handbook of mental retardation (pp. 67-77). New York: Pergamon Press.
39.
Gottlieb, J., Gampel, D.H., & Budoff, M. (1975). Classroom behavior of retarded children before and after integration into regular classes. The journal of Special Education, 9, 307-315.
40.
Hagerty, G.J., & Abramson, J. (1987). Impediments to implementing national policy change for mildly handicapped students. Exceptional Children, 53, 315-323.
41.
Hallahan, D.P., & Kauffman, J.M. (1977). Labels, categories, behaviors: ED, LD, and EMR reconsidered. The Journal of Special Education , 11, 139-149.
42.
Hallahan, D.P., Keller, C.E., McKinney, J.D., Lloyd, J.W., & Bryan, T. (1988). Examining the research base of the Regular Education Initiative: Efficacy studies and the Adaptive Learning Environments Model . journal of Learning Disabilities, 21, 29-35.
43.
Hammill, D.D., Bryant, B.R., Brown, L., Dunn, C., & Marten, A. (1989). How replicable is current LD research? A follow-up to the CLD research committee's recommendations. Learning Disability Quarterly, 12, 174-179.
44.
Hammill, D.D., Iano, R.P., McGettigan, J.F., & Wiederholt, J.L. (1972). Retardates' reading achievement in the resource room model: The first year. Training School Bulletin, 69, 104-107.
Howe, S.G. (1971). In Proceedings of the second convention of American instructors of the blind. Indianapolis: Indianapolis Printing and Publishing House.
49.
Iano, R.P. (1972). Shall we disband special classes? The Journal of Special Education, 6, 167-178.
50.
Iano, R.P., Ayers, D., Heller, H.B., McGettigan, J.F., & Walker, V.S. (1974). Sociometric status of retarded children in an integrative program. Exceptional Children, 40, 267-271.
51.
Idol, L., Nevin, A., & Paolucci-Whitcomb, P. (1986). Models of curriculum-based assessment. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
52.
Ito, H.R. (1980). Long-term effects of resource room programs on learning disabled children's reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 13, 322-326.
53.
Jenkins, J.R., & Mayhall, W.F. (1976). Development and evaluation of a resource teacher program. Exceptional Children, 43, 21-29.
54.
Jenkins, J.R., Pious, C.G., & Peterson, D.L. (1988). Categorical programs for remedial and handicapped students: Issues of validity. Exceptional Children, 55, 147-158.
55.
Keogh, B.K., & Levitt, M.L. (1976). Special education in the mainstream: A confrontation of limitations? Focus on Exceptional Children, 8(1), 1-11.
56.
Kerlin, M.A., & Latham, W.L. (1977). Intervention effects of a crisis-resource program . Exceptional Children, 44, 32-34.
57.
Lilly, M.S. (1971). Improving social acceptance of low sociometric status, low achieving students. Exceptional Children, 28, 341-347.
58.
Lilly, S. (1987). Commentary. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20, 494-495.
59.
Lovitt, T.C. (1975a). Applied behavior analysis and learning disabilities, Part I: Characteristics of ABA, general recommendations, and methodological limitations. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 8, 432-443.
60.
Lovitt, T.C. (1975b). Applied behavior analysis and learning disabilities, Part II: Specific research recommendations and suggestions for practitioners . Journal of Learning Disabilities, 8, 504-518.
61.
MacMillan, D.L. (1971). Special education for the mildly retarded: Servant or savant? Focus on Exceptional Children, 2(9), 1-11.
62.
Macy, D.J., & Carter, J.L. (1978). Comparison of a mainstream and self contained special education program. The Journal of Special Education , 12, 303-313.
63.
Miller, T.L., & Sabatino, D.A. (1978). An evaluation of the teacher consultant model as an approach to mainstreaming. Exceptional Children, 45, 86-91.
64.
Morrison, G.M. (1981). Perspectives of social status of learning-handicapped and nonhandicapped students. American Journal of Mental Deficiency , 86, 243-251.
65.
O'Conner, P.D., Stuck, G.B., & Wyne, M.D. (1979). Effects of a short-term intervention resource room program on task orientation and achievement. The Journal of Special Education, 13, 375-385.
66.
Pugach, M. (1987). The national education reports and special education: Implications for teacher preparation. Exceptional Children , 53, 308-314.
67.
Quay, J.C., Glavin, J.P., Annesley, F.R., & Werry, J.S. (1972). The modification of problem behavior and academic achievement in a resource room. Journal of School Psychology , 10, 187-198.
68.
Reger, R. (1973). What is a resource room program? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 6, 607-614.
69.
Reger, R., & Koppman, M. (1971). The child oriented resource room program. Exceptional Children, 37, 460-462.
70.
Ritter, D.R. (1978). Surviving in the classroom: A follow-up of mainstreamed children with learning disabilities. Journal of School Psychology , 16, 253-256.
71.
Robinson, N.M., & Robinson, H.B. (1976). The mentally retarded cbild (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
72.
Rodee, M.W. (1971). A study to evaluate the resource teacher when used with high level educable retardates at the primary level. Dissertation Abstracts 2516-A. PhD dissertation, University of Iowa (Order No. 71-30, 485).
73.
Ross, S.L., DeYoung, H.G., & Cohen, J.S. (1971). Confrontation : Special education placement and the law. Exceptional Children, 38, 5-12.
74.
Rust, J.O., Miller, L.S., & Wilson, W.H. (1978). Using a control group to evaluate a resource room program. Psychology in the Schools, 15, 503-506.
75.
Sabatino, D.A. (1971). An evaluation of resource rooms for children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 4, 84-93.
76.
Sapon-Shevin, M. (1987). The national education reports and special education: Implications for students. Exceptional Children, 53, 300-306.
77.
Sarfaty, L., & Katz, S. (1978). The self-concept and adjustment patterns of hearing-impaired pupils in different school settings. American Annals of the Deaf, 123, 438-441.
78.
Schiff, G., Scholom, A., Swerdlik, M., & Knight, J. (1979). Mainstreamed vs. self-contained classes: A two-year study of their effects on the personal adjustment and academic achievement of children with learning disabilities. Education, 99, 397-405.
79.
Schumaker, J.F., & Deshler, D.D. (1988). Implementing the Regular Education Initiative in secondary schools: A different ball game. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21, 36-42.
80.
Semmel, M.I., Gottlieb, J., & Robinson, N. (1978). Mainstreaming: Perspectives on educating handicapped children in the public schools. In D. Berliner (Ed.), Review of research in education (Vol. 7, pp. 223-279). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
81.
Sheare, J.B. (1978). The impact of resource programs upon the self concept and peer acceptance of learning disabled children. Psychology in the Schools, 15, 406-412.
82.
Shepard, L.A. (1987). The new push for excellence: Widening the schism between regular and special education. Exceptional Children , 53, 327-329.
83.
Shotel, J.R., Iano, R.P., & McGettigan, J.F. (1972). Teacher attitudes associated with the integration of handicapped children. Exceptional Children, 38, 677-683.
84.
Sindelar, P.T., & Deno, S.L. (1978). The effectiveness of resource programming. The Journal of Special Education, 12, 17-28.
85.
Sleeter, C.E. (1986). Learning disabilities: The social construction of a special education category. Exceptional Children, 53, 46-54.
86.
Smith, H.W., & Kennedy, W.A. (1967). Effects of three educational programs on mentally retarded children. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 24, 174.
87.
Stainback, S., & Stainback, W. (1988). Letter to the editor. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21, 452-453.
88.
Tilley, B.K. (1970). The effects of three educational placement systems on achievement, self-concept, and behavior in elementary mentally retarded children. Dissertation Abstracts 4590-A. PhD dissertation, University of Iowa (Order No. 71-5837).
89.
Tindal, G. (1985). Investigating the effectiveness of special education: An analysis of methodology. Journal of Learning Disabilities , 18, 101-112.
90.
Walker, V. (1974). The efficacy of the resource room for educating retarded children. Exceptional Children, 40, 288-289.
91.
Wallin, J.E.W. (1924). The education of handicapped children. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
92.
Wang, M.C., & Baker, E.T. (1985-1986). Mainstreaming programs : Design features and effects. The Journal of Special Education, 19, 503-521.
93.
Wang, M.C., & Birch, J.W. (1984). Effective special education in regular classes . Exceptional Children, 50, 391-398.
Weiner, L.H. (1969). An investigation of the effectiveness of resource rooms for children with specific learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 2, 223-229.
96.
West, J.F. (1985). Regular and special educators' preferences for school-based consultation models. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin.
97.
Wiederholt, J.L. (1974). Planning resource rooms for the mildly handicapped . Focus on Exceptional Children, 5(8), 1-10.
98.
Wiederholt, J.L. (1989). Restructuring special education services : The past, the present, the future. Learning Disability Quarterly , 12, 181-191.
99.
Wiederholt, J.L., Hammill, D.D., & Brown, V. (1983). The resource teacher. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
100.
Will, M.C. (1986). Educating children with learning problems: A shared responsibility. Exceptional Children, 52, 411-415.
101.
Ysseldyke, J.E., Algozzine, B., Shinn, M.R., & McGue, M. (1982). Similarities and differences between low achievers and students classified learning disabled. The Journal of Special Education, 16, 73-85.
