This paper describes an empirically based model depicting how three classes of variables are thought to influence reading. The classes include text-related, teacher-related, and student-related variables. The model is based on an interactive theory of the process of reading, meaning that efficient readers use both top-down (conceptually derived) and bottom-up (phonemically derived) mental processing when engaged in contextual reading. For each of the three variable classes (teacher, text, and student), an empirical base is built, demonstrating the importance of each to the interactive reading act. Discussion of the differential ease with which each of the three classes of variables may be controlled is included, with implications drawn for teaching poor readers.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Alberto, P.A., & Troutman, A.C. (1982). Applied behavior analysis for teachers. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
2.
Anderson, R.C. (1977). Schema-directed processes in language comprehension (Tech. Rep. No. 50). Urbana: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading.
3.
Anderson, R.C., & Freebody, P. (1983). Vocabulary knowledge. In J. Guthrie, (Ed.), Comprehension and teaching: Research reviews (pp. 11-117). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
4.
Anderson, R.C., & Pearson, P.D. (1984). A schema-theoretic view of basic processes in reading comprehension (Tech. Rep. No. 36). Urbana: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading.
5.
Anderson, R.C., & Pichert, J.W. (1978). Recall of previously unrecallable information following a shift in perspective. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 17, 1-12.
6.
Anderson, R.C., Mason, J., & Shirey, L.L. (1982). The reading group: An experimental investigation of a labyrinth. Unpublished manuscript, University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading, Urbana-Champaign.
7.
Anderson, T.H., & Armbruster, B. (1984). Content area text-books. In R. C. Anderson, J. Osborn., & R. J. Tierney, (Eds.), Learning to read in American schools (pp. 193-226). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
8.
Andre, M.D.A., & Anderson, T.J. (1978-79). The development and evaluation of a self-questioning study technique. Reading Research Quarterly, 14, 605-623.
9.
Armbruster, B.B. (1979). An investigation of the effectiveness of “mapping” text as a studying strategy for middle school students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana.
10.
Armbruster, B.B., & Brown, A.L. (1984). Learning from reading: The role of metacognition. In R.C. Anderson, J. Osborn., & R. J. Tierney, (Eds.), Learning to read in American schools (pp. 273-282). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
11.
Armbruster, B.B., Echols, C.J., & Brown, A.L. (1983). The role of metacognition in reading to learn: A developmental perspective (Reading Education Report No. 40). Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading.
12.
Armento, B. (1975). Correlates of teacher effectiveness in social studies. Unpublished manuscript, Indiana University, Bloomington.
13.
Asch, S. & Nerlove, H. (1960). The development of double function terms in children: An exploration study. In B. Kaplan & S. Wapner (Eds.), Perspectives in psychological theory. New York: International Universities Press.
14.
Au, K. (1979). Using the experience-text-relationship method with minority children. Reading Teacher, 32, 677-679.
15.
Au, K.H., & Mason, J.M. (1981). Social organizational factors in learning to read: The balance of rights hypothesis. Reading Research Quarterly, 17(1), 115-152.
16.
Ausubel, D.P. (1963). The psychology of meaningful verbal learning. New York: Grune & Stratton.
17.
Ausubel, D.P. (1978). In defense of advance organizers. A reply to the critics. Review of Educational Research, 48, 251-258.
18.
Baker, L. & Brown, A.L. (1984). Cognitive monitoring in reading comprehension. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
19.
Bartlett, F.C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
20.
Beck, I.L., McCaslin, E.S., & McKeown, M.G. (1980). The rationale and design of a program to teach vocabulary to fourth-grade students. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, Learning Research and Development Center.
21.
Beck, I.L., & McKeown, M.G. (1981). Developing questions that promote comprehension: The story map. Language Arts, 58(8), 913-918.
22.
Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., McCaslin, E.S., & Burkes, A.M. (1979). Instructional dimensions that may affect reading comprehension: Examples from two commercial reading programs. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, Learning Research and Development Center.
23.
Beck, I.L., Perfetti, C., & McKeown, M. (1982). The effects of long-term vocabulary instruction on lexical access and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 506-521.
24.
Becker, W.C., Madsen, C.H., Arnold, C.R., & Thomas, D.R. (1967). The contingent use of teacher attention on praise in reducing classroom behavior problems. The Journal of Special Education, 1, 287-307.
25.
Berger, A. (1972). Increasing reading rate with paperbacks. Reading Improvement, 9(3), 78-84.
26.
Berliner, D.C., & Rosenshine, B. (1976). The acquisition of knowledge in the classroom (Tech. Rep. No. IV-I). San Francisco: Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development.
27.
Biemiller, A. (1977-78). Relationships between oral reading rates for letters, words, and simple text in the development of reading achievement. Reading Research Quarterly, 1(2), 223-253.
28.
Billow, R.M. (1975). A cognitive development study of metaphor comprehension. Developmental Psychology, 11, 415-423.
29.
Bird, M. (1980). Reading comprehension strategies: A direct teaching approach. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto.
30.
Blankenship, C. & Lilly, M.S. (1981). Mainstreaming students with learning and behavior problems. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
31.
Bransford, J.D. (1979). Human cognition: Learning, understanding, and remembering. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
32.
Bransford, J.D., & Johnson, M.K. (1974). Considerations of some problems of comprehension. In W. G. Chase (Ed.), Visual information processing. New York: Academic Press.
33.
Brown, A.L. (1978). Knowing, when, where, and how to remember: A problem of metacognition. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (pp. 77-165). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
34.
Brown, A.L. (1982). Learning to learn how to read. In J. Langer & T. Smith-Burke (Eds.), Reader meets author/bridging the gap: A psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic perspective. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
35.
Brown, A.L. (1985). Teaching students to think as they read: Implications for curriculum reform (Reading Educ. Rep. No. 58). Urbana: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading.
36.
Brown, A.L., Campione, J., & Day, J.D. (1981). Learning to learn: On training students to learn from texts. Educational Researcher, 10(2), 14-21.
37.
Brown, A.L., & Palincsar, A.S. (in press). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension strategies: A natural history of one program for enhancing learning. In J. Borkowski & J.D. Day (Eds.), Intelligence and cognition in special children: Comparative studies of giftedness, mental retardation, and learning disabilities. New York: Ablex.
38.
Brown, A.L., Smiley, S.S., Day, J., Townsend, M., & Lawton, S.C. (1978). Intrusion of athematic idea in children's recall of prose. Child Development, 48, 1454-1466.
Bruce, B.Rubin, A., & Starr, K. (1981). Why readability formulas fail. IEEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, PC-24, 50-52.
41.
Camp, B.W., & Van Doorninck, W.J. (1971). Assessment of “motivated” reading therapy with elementary school children. Behavior Therapy, 2, 214-222.
42.
Carnine, D. & Silbert, J. (1979). Direct instruction reading. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
43.
Carver, R.P. (1977-78). Toward a theory of reading comprehension and reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 13(1), 9-63.
44.
Cazden, C. (in press). Classroom discourse. In M.C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan.
45.
Chalfant, J.C., Vandussen Pysh, M., & Moultrice, R. (1979). Teacher assistance teams: A model for within-building problem solving. Learning Disability Quarterly, 2, 85-96.
46.
Chall, J.S. (1967). Learning to read: The great debate. New York: McGraw-Hill.
47.
Chall, J.S. (1979). The great debate: Ten years later, with a modest proposal for reading stages. In L. B. Resnick & P. A. Weaver, (Eds.), Theory and practice of early reading (pp. 29-55). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
48.
Chall, J.S. (1983). Stages of reading development. New York: McGraw-Hill.
49.
Chang, S.S., & Raths, J. (1971). The school's contribution to the cumulating deficit. Journal of Educational Research, 64, 272-276.
50.
Chiesi, H.L., Spilich, G.J., & Voss, J.F. (1979). Acquisition of domain-related information in relation to high and low domain knowledge. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 18, 257-274.
51.
Collins, A.Brown, J.S., & Larkin, K.M. (1977). Inference in text understanding (Tech. Rep. No. 40). Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading.
52.
Collins, A. & Smith, E.E. (1981). Teaching the process of reading comprehension. Intelligence.
53.
Collins, J.P. (1983). A linguistic perspective on minority education: Discourse analysis and early literacy. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
54.
Cometa, M.S., & Eson, M.E. (1978). Logical operations and metaphor interpretation: A Piagetian model. Child Development, 49, 649-659.
55.
Cooper, J.O. (1981). Measuring behavior. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
56.
Danscreau, D. (1980). The development of a learning strategies curriculum. In R.J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce, & W. F. Brewer, (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension: Perspectives from cognitive psychology, artificial intelligence, linguistics, and education. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
57.
Davison, A. (1984). Readability---Appraising text difficulty. In R.C. Anderson, J. Osborn., & R. J. Tierney, (Eds.), Learning to read in American Schools (pp. 121-140). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
58.
Davison, A.Kantor, R.N., Hannah, J., Hermon, G., Lutz, R., & Salzillo, R. (1980). Limitations of readability formulas in guiding adaptations of texts (Tech. Rep. No. 162). Urbana: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading.
59.
Doehring, D.G. (1968). Patterns of impairment in specific reading disability. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
60.
Durkin, D. (1978-79). What classroom observations reveal about reading comprehension instruction. Reading Research Quarterly, 14, 481-533.
61.
Durkin, D. (1984). Do basal manuals teach reading comprehension? In R. C. Anderson, J. Osborn., & R. J. Tierney, (Eds.), Learning to read in American schools (pp. 29-38). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
62.
Engelmann, S. & Carnine, D. (1982). Theory of instruction: Principles and applications. New York: Irvington.
63.
Flavell, J.H. (1981). Cognitive monitoring. In W. P. Dickson (Ed.), Children's oral communication skills. New York: Academic Press.
64.
Forman, E.A. (1981). The role of collaboration in problem solving in children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
65.
Forman, E.A., & Cazden, C. (in press). Exploring Vygotskian perspective in education: The cognitive value of peer interaction. In J.V. Wertsch (Ed.), Culture, communication and cognition: Vygotskian perspectives. New York: Cambridge University Press.
66.
Frase, L.T., & Schwartz, B.J. (1975). The effect of question production and answering in prose recall. Journal of Educational Psychology, 62, 628-635.
67.
Gibson, E.J. (1977). How perception really develops: A view from outside the network. In D. Laberge & S. J. Samuels, (Eds.), Basic processes in reading: Perception and comprehension (pp. 156-173). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
68.
Givens-Ogle, L. (1981). Reading rate: To be or not to be (a daily criterion), that is the question. Unpublished manuscript, University of Illinois, Urbana.
69.
Golinkoff, R.A. (1976). A comparison of reading comprehension processes in good and poor comprehenders. Reading Research Quarterly, 11, 623-659.
70.
Goodman, K.S. (1976). Behind the eye: What happens in reading. In H. Singer & R. B. Ruddell, (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes in reading. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
71.
Hall, R.Fox, R., Willard, P., Goldsmith, L., Emerson, M., Owen, M., Davis, R., & Porcia, E. (1971). The teacher as observer and experimenter in the modification of disrupting and talking-out behaviors. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 4, 141-149.
72.
Hall, R.V., Lund, P., & Jackson, D. (1968). Effects of teacher attention on study behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1(1), 1-12.
73.
Hall, R.V., Panyan, M., Rabon, D., & Broden, M. (1968). Instructing beginning teachers in reinforcement procedures which improve classroom control. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1(4), 315-322.
74.
Hall, W.S., & Nagy, W.E. (1979). Theoretical issues in the investigation of words of internal report (Tech. Rep. No. 146). Urbana: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 177 526).
75.
Hanf, M.B. (1971). Mapping: A technique for translating reading into thinking. Journal of Reading, 14, 225-230.
76.
Haring, N.G., Lovitt, T.C., Easton, M.D., & Hansen, C.L. (1978). The fourth R: Research in the classroom. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
77.
Hawkins, J.Sheingold, K., Gearhart, M., & Berger, C. (1982). Microcomputers in schools: Impact on the social life of elementary classrooms. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 3, 361-373.
Idol, L. (1987a). A critical thinking map to improve content area comprehension of poor readers. Remedial and Special Education, 8(4), 28-40.
80.
Idol, L. (1987b). Group story mapping: A comprehension strategy for both skilled and unskilled readers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20(4), 196-205.
81.
Idol, L. & Croll, V. (1987). Story mapping training as a means of improving reading comprehension. Learning Disability Quarterly, 10(3), 214-230.
82.
Idol, L. Paolucci-Whitcomb, P., & Nevin, A. (1986). Collaborative consultation. Rockville, MD: Aspen Systems.
83.
Idol-Maestas, L. (1979). Oral language structures and responses in children with reading difficulty. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.
84.
Idol-Maestas, L. (1980). Oral language responses of children with reading difficulties. The Journal of Special Education, 14(3), 385-404.
85.
Idol-Maestas, L. (1983). The special educator's consultation handbook. Rockville, MD: Aspen Systems.
86.
Idol-Maestas, L. (1985). Getting ready to read: Guided probing for poor comprehenders. Learning Disability Quarterly, 8, 43-254.
87.
Idol-Maestas, L., Ritter, S., & Lloyd, S. (1983). A model for direct, data-based reading instruction. Journal of Special Education Technology, 6(3), 61-77.
88.
Idol-Maestas, L., Lloyd, S., & Lilly, M.S. (1981). Implementation of a noncategorical approach to direct service and teacher education. Exceptional Children, 48(3), 213-219.
89.
Inhelder, B. & Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence. New York: Basic Books.
90.
Ingram, T.T.S. (1960). Paediatric aspects of specific developmental dysphasia, dyslexia, and dysgraphia. Cerebral Palsy Bulletin, 2, 254-277.
91.
Jenkins, J.R., Barksdale, A., & Clinton, L. (1978). Improving oral reading and comprehension. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 11, 607-617.
92.
Jenkins, J.R., & Heliotis, J.G. (1981). Reading comprehension instruction: Findings from behavioral and cognitive psychology. Topics in Language Disorders, 1(2), 25-41.
93.
Jenkins, J.R., & Jenkins, L. (1981). Cross age and peer tutoring: Help for children with learning problems. Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.
94.
Jenkins, J.R., Pany, D., & Schreck J. (1978). Vocabulary and reading comprehension: Instructional effects (Tech. Rep. No. 100). Urbana: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 160 999)
95.
Johnson, D. & Pearson, P.D. (1984). Teaching reading vocabulary (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinchart & Winston.
96.
Johnson, D.J., & Myklebust, H.R. (1967). Learning disabilities: Educational principles and practices. New York: Grune & Stratton.
97.
Johnson, L. & Idol, L. (1986). Peer tutoring as an appropriate reinforcer for tutee behavior. Journal of Special Education Technology, 7(4), 14-24.
98.
Johnson, P.H. (1981). Prior knowledge and reading comprehension test bias. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois.
99.
Kameenui, E.J., Carnine, D., & Freschi, R. (1982). Effects of text construction and instructional procedures for teaching word meanings on comprehension and recall. Reading Research Quarterly, 17(3), 367-388.
100.
King, P.T., Dellance, W.D., & Walter, T.L. (1969). The prediction of change in grade point average from initial reading rates. Journal of Reading, 13(3), 215-218, 245-246.
101.
Knight, M.F., Meyers, H.W., Paolucci-Whitcomb, P., Hasazi, S.E., & Nevin, A. (1981). A four-year evaluation of consulting teacher service. Behavioral Disorders, 6(2), 92-100.
102.
Kroth, R.L. (1975). Communicating with parents of exceptional children. Denver: Love.
103.
Lahey, B.B., McNees, M.P., & Brown, C.C. (1973). Modification of deficits in reading for comprehension. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6, 475-480.
104.
Lee, P. & Alley, G.R. (1980). Training junior high school LD students to use a test taking strategy (IRLD Report No. 38). Lawrence: University of Kansas.
105.
Lerner, J. (1981). Learning disabilities: Theories, diagnosis, and teaching strategies. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Linden, M. & Wittrock, M.C. (1981). The teaching of reading comprehension according to the model of generative learning. Reading Research Quarterly, 1, 44-57.
108.
Lovitt, T.C., & Hansen, C.L. (1976a). The use of contingent skipping and drilling to improve reading and comprehension. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 9, 481-487.
109.
Lovitt, T.C., & Hansen, C.L. (1976b). Round one: Placing the child in the right reader. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 9, 347-353.
110.
Luiten, J. Ames., W.S., & Ackerson, G. (1979). The advance organizer: A review of research using Glass' technique of meta-analysis. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Reading Conference, San Antonio, TX.
111.
Mandler, J.M., & Johnson, N.S. (1977). Remembrance of things parsed: Story structure and recall. Cognitive Psychology, 9, 111-115.
112.
Manzo, V. (1969). Improving reading comprehension through reciprocal questioning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Syracuse.
113.
Markman, E.M. (1979). Realizing that you don't understand: Elementary school children's awareness of inconsistencies. Child Development, 50, 643-655.
114.
Markman, E.M. (1981). Comprehension monitoring. In W. P. Dickson (Ed.), Children's oral communication skills. New York: Academic Press.
115.
McConkie, G.W., & Rayner, K. (1975). The span of the effective stimulus during a fixation in reading. Perception and Psychophysics, 17, 578-586.
116.
McConkie, G.W., & Thomas, W., & Hogaboam, T.W. (1985). Eye position and word identification during reading (Tech Rep. No. 333). Urbana: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading.
117.
McConkie, G.W., Underwood, N.R., Zola, D., & Wolverton, G.S. (1985). Some temporal characteristics of processing during reading (Tech. Rep. No. 331). Urbana: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading.
118.
McDermott, R.P. (1976). Kids make sense: An ethnographic account of the interactional management of success and failure in one first-grade classroom. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University.
119.
McGrady, J.J., & Olson, D.A. (1970). Visual and auditory learning processes in normal children and children with specific learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 36, 581-589.
120.
Meier, J.H. (1971). Prevalance and characteristics of learning disabilities found in second grade children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 4, 1-6.
121.
Mercer, J.R. (1970). Sociological perspectives on mild mental retardation. In H. C. Haywood (Ed.), Social cultural aspects of mental retardation (pp. 378-391). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
122.
Mercer, J.R. (1973). Labelling the mentally retarded. Berkeley: University of California Press.
123.
Michaels, S. (1981). “Sharing time”: Children's narrative style and differential access to literacy. Language in Society, 10, 423-442.
124.
Michaels, S. & Cazden, C. (in press). Teacher child collaboration as oral preparation for literacy. In B. B. Schiefflin (Ed.), Acquisition of literacy: Ethnographic perspectives. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
125.
Miller, W. (1973). The acquisition of grammatical rules by children. In C.A. Ferguson & D.I. Slobin (Eds.), Studies of child language development. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
126.
Nagy, W.E., & Anderson, R.C. (1984). How many words are there printed in school English?Reading Research Quarterly, 24(3), 304-330.
127.
Neimark, E.D., & Slotnick, N.S. (1970). Development of the understanding of logical connectives. Journal of Educational Psychology, 61, 451-460.
128.
Nelson, C.M., & Stevens, K.B. (1981). An accountable model for mainstreaming behaviorally disordered children. Behavioral Disorders, 6(2), 82-91.
129.
Newcomer, P. & Hammill, D.D. (1978). Using the Test of Language Development with language-impaired children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 11, 521-524.
130.
Olson, D. (1977). From utterance to text: The bias of language in speech and writing. Harvard Educational Review, 47, 257-281.
131.
Osborn, J. (1984). The purposes, uses and contents of workbooks and some guidelines for publishers. In R.C. Anderson, J. Osborn., & R. J. Tierney, (Eds.), Learning to read in American schools (pp. 45-112). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
132.
Palincsar, A. (1982). Improving the reading comprehension of junior high students through the reciprocal teaching of comprehension-monitoring strategies. Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana.
133.
Palincsar, A.S., & Brown, A.L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1(2), 117-175.
134.
Pany, D. & Jenkins, J.R. (1977). Learning word meanings: A comparison of instructional procedures and effects on measures of reading comprehension with learning disabled students (Tech. Rep. No. 25). Urbana: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 136 237).
135.
Pearson, P.D. (1982). Asking questions about stories. Boston: Ginn.
136.
Pearson, P.D. (1984). Reading comprehension instruction: Six necessary changes (Reading Education Report, No. 54). Urbana: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading.
137.
Pearson, P.D., & Gallagher, M.C. (1983). The instruction of reading comprehension. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 8, 317-344.
138.
Pearson, P.D., Hansen, J., & Gordon, C. (1979). The effect of background knowledge on young children's comprehension of explicit and implicit information. Journal of Reading Behavior, 11, 201-210.
139.
Pearson, P.D., & Spiro, R. (1980). Toward a theory of reading comprehension instruction. Topics in Language Disorders, 1(1), 71-88.
140.
Piaget, J. (1950). The psychology of intelligence. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
141.
Piaget, J. (1970). Piaget's theory. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael's manual of child psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 703-732). New York: Wiley.
142.
Rabinovitch, R.D., Drew, A.L., DeJong, R.N., Ingram, W., & Witey, L.A. (1954). A research approach to reading retardation. Research Publication for the Association of Nervous and Mental Disorders, 34, 363-396.
143.
Raphael, T.E., Myers, A.C., Tirre, W.C., Freebody, P., & Fritz, M. (1981). The effects of some known sources of reading difficulty on metacomprehension and comprehension. Journal of Reading Behavior, 13(4), 325-334.
144.
Resnick, L. (1981). Social assumptions as a context for science: Some reflections on psychology and education. Educational Psychology, 16, 1-10.
145.
Reynolds, R.E., & Ortony, A. (1980). Some issues in the measurement of children's comprehension of metaphorical language. Child Development, 51, 1110-1119.
146.
Ritter, S.A., & Idol-Maestas, L. (1986). Teaching middle school students to use a text-taking strategy. Journal of Educational Research, 79(6), 350-357.
147.
Roberts, M. & Smith, D.D. (1980). The relationship among correct and oral reading rates and comprehension. Learning Disability Quarterly, 3, 54-65.
148.
Rosenthal, J.H. (1970). A preliminary psycholinguistic study of children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 3, 391-395.
149.
Rubin, A. & Bruce, B. (1984). Quill: Reading and writing with a microcomputer (Reading Educ. Rep. No. 48). Cambridge, MA: Center for the Study of Reading, Bolt Beranek & Newman.
150.
Rumelhart, D.E. (1975). Notes on a schema for stories. In D.G. Bobrown & A. Collins (Eds.), Representation and understanding: Studies on cognitive science. New York: Academic press.
151.
Rumelhart, D.E. (1977). Toward an interactive model of reading. In S. Dornic (Ed.), Attention and performance VI. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
152.
Rumelhart, D.E. (1980). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In R.J. Spiro, B.C. Bruce, & W.F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension (pp. 33-38). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
153.
Rumelhart, D.E., & McClelland, J.L. (1981). An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: Part I. An account of basic findings. Psychological Review, 88, 375-407.
154.
Rumelhart, D.E., & Norman, D.A. (1981). Analogical processes in learning. In J. R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
155.
Ryan, E.B. (1981). Identifying and remediating failures in reading comprehension: Toward an instructional approach for poor comprehenders. In G. E. Mackinnon & T. G. Waller, (Eds.), Reading research: Advances in theory and practice (Vol. 3). New York: Academic Press.
156.
Samuels, S.J., & Dahl, P.R. (1976). Establishing appropriate purpose for reading and its effect on flexibility of reading rate. Journal of Educational Psychology, 57(1), 38-43.
157.
Schumaker, J.B., Deshler, D.D., Denton, P., Alley, G.R., Clark, F.L., & Warner, M.M. (1981). Multipass: A learning strategy for improving reading comprehension (IRLD Research Report No. 33). Lawrence: University of Kansas.
158.
Shreck, J. (1981). The effects of content schema on reading comprehension for three cultural groups. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana.
Slavin, R.E. (1983). Cooperative learning. New York: Longman.
161.
Smith, D. (1981). Teaching the learning disabled. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
162.
Smith, F. (1971). Understanding reading: A psycholinguistic analysis of reading and learning to read. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
163.
Smith, F. (1973). Psycholinguistics and reading. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
164.
Smith, F. & Goodman, K.S. (1971). On the psycholinguistic method of teaching reading. Elementary School Journal, 71, 177-181.
165.
Spiro, R.J. (1980). Constructive processes in prose comprehension and recall. In R.J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce, & W. F. Brewer, (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension (pp. 245-278). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
166.
Spring, C.Blunder, D., & Gatheral, M. (1981). Effect on reading comprehension of training to automaticity in word reading. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 53, 779-786.
167.
Staats, A.W., & Butterfield, W.H. (1965). Treatment of non-reading in a culturally deprived juvenile delinquent: An application of reinforcement principles. Child Development, 36, 842-925.
168.
Staats, A.W., Minke, K.A., Goodwin, W., & Landeen, J. (1967). Cognitive behavior modification: “Motivated learning” reading treatment with subprofessional therapy-technicians. Behavior Research and Therapy, 5, 283-299.
169.
Stallings, J.A., & Kaskowitz, P. (1974). Follow-through classroom observation evaluation, 1972-1973. Menlo Park, CA: Stanford Research Institute.
170.
Starlin, C.M. (1969). Evaluating progress towards reading proficiency. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon, Eugene.
171.
Steffensen, M.S., Joag-dev, C., & Anderson, R.C. (1978). A crosscultural perspective on reading comprehension (Tech. Rep. No. 97). Urbana: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading.
172.
Stein, N.L., & Glenn, C.G. (1979). An analysis of story comprehension in elementary school children. In R. Freedle (Ed.), New directions in discourse processing (pp. 53-120). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
173.
Stein, N. & Trabasso, T. (1981). What's in a story: An approach to comprehension and instruction (Tech. Rep. No. 97). Urbana: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading.
174.
Taylor, E.A. (1937). Controlled reading. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
175.
Thomas, D.R., Becker, W.C., & Armstrong, M. (1968). Production and elimination of disruptive classroom behavior by systematically varying teacher's behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1(1), 35-45.
176.
Torrance, N., & Olson, D. (1982). Oral language competence and the acquisition of literacy. Paper presented at American Educational Research Association.
177.
Tuinman, J.J. (1974). Determining the passage-dependency of comprehension questions in five major texts. Reading Research Quarterly, 2, 207-223.
178.
Vogel, S.A. (1976). Assessment of morphological ability in good and poor readers. Paper presented at the Annual International Convention, The Council for Exceptional Children, Chicago. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 122 501)
179.
Vogel, S.A. (1977). Morphological ability in normal and dyslexic children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 10(1), 35-43.
180.
Vosniadou, S. & Ortony, A. (1982). Children's comprehension of figurative language. Paper presented at American Educational Research Association.
181.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
182.
Waern, Y. (1977). On the relationship between knowledge of the world and comprehension of texts. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 18, 130-139.
183.
Wagoner, S. (1982). Comprehension monitoring: What it is and what we know about it. Unpublished manuscript, University of Maryland, College Park.
184.
Walker, E.F., & Schaffarzick, J. (1974). Comparing curricula. Review of Educational Research, 44, 83-112.
185.
Warner, M.M., & Alley, G.R. (1981). Teaching learning disabled junior high students to use visual imagery as a strategy for facilitating recall of reading passages (IRLD Research Report No. 49). Lawrence: University of Kansas.
186.
Wiig, E.J., Lapointe, C., & Semel, E.M. (1977). Relationships among language processing and production abilities of learning disabled adolescents. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 10(5), 292-299.
187.
Wiig, E.H., & Semel, E.M. (1973). Comprehension of linguistic concepts requiring logical operations by learning disabled children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 16(4), 627-637.
188.
Wiig, E.J., & Semel, E.M. (1974). Logico-grammatical sentence comprehension by adolescents with learning disabilities. Perceptual Motor Skills, 38, 1331-1334.
189.
Wiig, E.H., & Semel, E.M. (1975). Productive language abilities in learning disabled adolescents. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 8(9), 578-586.
190.
Wiig, E.H., Semel, E.M., & Crouse, M.B. (1973). The use of English morphology by high-risk and learning disabled children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 6(7), 457-465.
191.
Wiig, E.J., & Semel, E.M. (1976). Language difficulties in children and adolescents. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
192.
Wilenskik, R. (1978). Why John married Mary: Understanding stories involving recurring goals. Cognitive Science, 2, 235-266.
193.
Winner, E. Rosenstiel A.K., & Gardner, H. (1976). The development of metaphoric understanding. Developmental Psychology, 12, 289-297.
194.
Wong, B. & Jones, W. (1981). Increasing metacognition in L.D. normally achieving students through self-questioning training. Unpublished manuscript, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C..
