Instructional coaching is one way to support teachers’ implementation of evidence-based practices, but gaps exist in knowledge about effective coaching interventions to support teacher learning at the secondary level. In this article, we first introduce an adaptive intervention model (AIM) for coaching, AIM Coaching, a coaching model designed for middle school instructional leaders to use to support teachers as they implement evidence-based literacy instructional practices across a Tier 1 school-wide literacy model. We also describe the theory of change that guided our work, a description of the accompanying professional development instructional leaders received, and the literacy practices that are linked to the model for the purpose of this work. Second, we describe the challenges we encountered and decisions we made during the development process, solutions that addressed those challenges, and implications of those solutions.
ArcherA. L.HughesC. A. (2011). Explicit instruction: Effective and efficient teaching. The Guilford Press.
2.
BanduraA., & National Institutes of Mental Health. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
3.
BlameyK. L.MeyerC. K.WalpoleS. (2008). Middle and high school literacy coaches: A national survey. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 52(4), 310–323. http://doi.org/10.1598/JAAL.52.4.4
4.
BlazarD.KraftM. A. (2015). Exploring mechanisms of effective teacher coaching: A tale of two cohorts from a randomized experiment. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 37(4), 542–566. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373715579487
BrownellM. T.BenedictA. E.LekoM. M.PeytonD.PuaD.Richards-TutorC. (2019). A continuum of pedagogies for preparing teachers to use high-leverage practices. Remedial and Special Education, 40(6), 338–355. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932518824990
7.
CapinP.RobertsG.ClemensN. H.VaughnS. (2022). When treatment adherence matters: Interactions among treatment adherence, instructional quality, and student characteristics on reading outcomes. Reading Research Quarterly, 57(2), 753–774. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.442
8.
CapinP.WalkerM. A.VaughnS.WanzekJ. (2018). Examining how treatment fidelity is supported, measured, and reported in k-3 reading intervention research. Educational Psychology Review, 30(3), 885–919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-017-9429-z
9.
ChanD. (2009). So why ask me? Are self-report data really that bad?. In LanceC. E.VandenbergR. J. (Eds.), Statistical and methodological myths and urban legends: Doctrine, verity and fable in the organizational and social sciences (pp. 309–336). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
DeChenneS. E.NugentG.KunzG.LuoL.BerryB.CravenK.RiggsA. (2012). A case study of coaching in science, technology, engineering, and math professional development. National Center for Research on Rural Education. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED538874
15.
DesimoneL. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Researcher, 38(3), 181–199. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X08331140
16.
DevlinB. L.PaesT. M.GeerE. A.BryantL. M.ZehnerT. M.KorucuI.MorseK.DuncanR. J.PurpuraD. J.SchmittS. A. (2023). Moving beyond dosage and adherence: A protocol for capturing dimensions of active child engagement as a measure of fidelity for social-emotional learning interventions. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 1014713. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1014713
17.
EunB. (2019). Adopting a stance: Bandura and Vygotsky on professional development. Research in Education, 105(1), 74–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/0034523718793431
18.
GaretM. S.PorterA. C.DesimoneL.BirmanB. F.YoonK. S. (2001). What makes professional development effective? Results from a national sample of teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 38(4), 915–945. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312038004915
19.
GloverT. A.ReddyL. A.KurzA.ElliottS. N. (2019). Use of an online platform to facilitate and investigate data-driven instructional coaching. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 44(2), 95–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534508418811593
20.
HarnB.ParisiD.StoolmillerM. (2013). Balancing fidelity with flexibility and fit: What do we really know about fidelity of implementation in schools?Exceptional Children, 79, 181–193. https://doi.org10.1177/001440291307900204
21.
HillH. C.EricksonA. (2019). Using implementation fidelity to aid in interpreting program impacts: A brief review. Educational Researcher, 48(9), 590–598. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X19891436
22.
HittD. H.TuckerP. D. (2016). Systematic review of key leader practices found to influence student achievement: A unified framework. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 531–569. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315614911
23.
KamilM. L.BormanG. D.DoleJ.KralC. C.SalingerT.TorgesenJ. (2008). Improving adolescent literacy: Effective classroom and intervention practices. IES practice guide (NCEE 2008-4027). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED502398.pdf
24.
KennedyM. M. (2016). How does professional development improve teaching?Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 945–980. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315626800
KraftM. A.BlazarD.HoganD. (2018). The effect of teacher coaching on instruction and achievement: A meta-analysis of the causal evidence. Review of Educational Research, 88, 547–588. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654318759268
27.
LeiH.Nahum-ShaniI.LynchK.OslinD.MurphyS. A. (2012). A “SMART” design for building individualized treatment sequences. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 8, 21–48. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032511-143152
28.
MetzA.BartleyL. (2012). Active implementation frameworks for program success: How to use implementation science to improve outcomes for children. Zero to Three Journal, 34(4), 11–18.
29.
Nahum-ShaniI.QianM.AlmirallD.PelhamW. E.GnagyB.FabianoG. A.WaxmonskyJ. G.MurphyS. A. (2012). Experimental design and primary data analysis methods for comparing adaptive interventions. Psychological Methods, 17(4), 457. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029372
30.
RobertsG.VaughnS.BeretvasS. N.WongV. (Eds.). (2017). Treatment fidelity in studies of educational intervention. Routledge.
31.
RonfeldtM. (2021). Links among teacher preparation, retention, and teaching effectiveness. National Academy of Education Committee on Evaluating and Improving Teacher Preparation Programs; National Academy of Education.
32.
SchenM.RaoS.DoblesR. (2005). Coaches in the high school classroom: Studies in implementing high school reform. Annenberg Institute for School Reform at Brown University.
33.
SheltonA.SwansonE.WexlerJ.PayneS. B.HoganE. (2023). An exploration of middle school literacy coaching: A study of teachers and instructional coaches. Teacher Education and Special Education, 46(4), 300–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/08884064231172733
34.
SnyderP. A.HemmeterM. L.FoxL. K. (2022). Essentials of practice-based coaching-supporting effective practices in early childhood. Paul H. Brookes.
35.
StarkK.WexlerJ.SheltonA.JohnstonT. B.OmohundroK. (2024). Explicit and evidence-based literacy instruction in middle school: An observation study. Reading & Writing, 37, 2253–2274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-023-10470-y
36.
StoetzelL.ShedrowS. (2020). Coaching our coaches: How online learning can address the gap in preparing K-12 instructional coaches. Teaching and Teacher Education, 88, 102959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.102959
37.
SturtevantE. G. (2003). The literacy coach: A key to improving teaching and learning in secondary schools. Alliance for Excellent Education.
38.
SwansonE.StewartA. A.StevensE. A.ScammaccaN. K.CapinP.BhatB. H.RobertsG.VaughnS. (2023). The efficacy of two models of professional development mediated by fidelity on fourth grade student reading outcomes. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 17(2), 288–317. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2023.2181897
39.
TaieS.LewisL. (2022). Characteristics of 2020–21 public and private k–12 schools in the United States: Results from the national teacher and principal survey first look (NCES 2022-111). U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2022111
40.
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2023a). Reading performance. Condition of education. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cnb
41.
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2023b). Students with disabilities. Condition of education. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cgg
VaughnS.FallA.-M.RobertsG.WanzekJ.SwansonE.MartinezL. (2019). Class percentage of students with reading difficulties on content knowledge and comprehension. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 52(2), 120–134. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219418775117
44.
VaughnS.MartinezL. R.WanzekJ.RobertsG.SwansonE.FallA. M. (2017). Improving content knowledge and comprehension for English language learners: Findings from a randomized control trial. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(1), 22. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/edu0000069
45.
VaughnS.RobertsG.KlingnerJ. K.SwansonE.BoardmanA.StillmanS. J.MuhammedS.LerouxA. (2013). Collaborative strategic reading: Findings from experienced implementers. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 6(2), 137–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2012.741661
46.
VaughnS.RobertsG.SwansonE. A.WanzekJ.FallA.-M.Stillman-SpisakS. J. (2015). Improving middle school students’ knowledge and comprehension in social studies: A replication. Educational Psychology Review, 27(1), 31–50. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/s10648-014-9274-2
47.
VaughnS.SwansonE. A.RobertsG.WanzekJ.Stillman-SpisakS. J.SolisM.SimmonsD. (2013). Improving reading comprehension and social studies knowledge in middle school. Reading Research Quarterly, 48(1), 77–93. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.039
48.
VaughnS.WexlerJ.LerouxA.RobertsG.DentonC. A.BarthA.FletcherJ. (2012). Effects of an intensive reading intervention for eighth grade students with persistently inadequate response to intervention. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(6), 515–525. http://doi.org/10.1177/0022219411402692
WexlerJ.KearnsD. K.LemonsC. J.SheltonA.PollackM. S.StapletonL. M.ClancyE.HoganE.LyonC. (2022). Improving literacy instruction in co-taught middle school classroom to support reading comprehension. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 68, 102040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.102040
51.
WexlerJ.SwansonE.SheltonA. (2021). Literacy coaching in the secondary grades: Helping teachers meet the needs of all students. Guilford Publications.
52.
WexlerJ.SwansonE.SheltonA.KurzL. A.BrayL.HoganE. (2022). Sustaining the use of evidence-based tier 1 literacy practices that benefit students with disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 56(2), 145–160. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00222194211065499
53.
YoonK. S.DuncanT.LeeS. W.-Y.ScarlossB.ShapleyK. (2007). Reviewing the evidence on how teacher professional development affects student achievement (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2007-No. 033). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Southwest. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/regions/southwest/pdf/rel_2007033.pdf
