This study extends the research on issues of trust in family—professional relationships by more fully examining, within a qualitative research design, the nature of trust between parents of children with disabilities and school personnel. The authors examined the trust-related perspectives of 16 mothers of children with various disabilities at all levels of the P—12 educational system. Analysis of the mothers' responses to face-to-face interview questions yielded three primary categories that seem to influence trust: family characteristics, teacher characteristics, and school characteristics. Discussion focuses on the mothers' difficulty in defining their levels of trust and on the roles of authentic caring, child-focused orientation, communication, knowledge about child characteristics, and school climate and teaming factors that appear to facilitate or inhibit trust. Discussion also addresses implications of these findings for school leadership and the establishment of healthy family—professional relationships, especially as they affect the lives of students and families in need of special education support.
Adams, K.S., & Christenson, S.L. (1998). Differences in parent and teacher trust levels: Implications for creating collaborative family-school relationships. Special Services in the Schools, 14, 1-22.
2.
Adams, K.S., & Christenson, S.L. (2000). Trust and the family-school relationship: Examination of parent-teacher differences in elementary and secondary grades. Journal of School Psychology, 38, 477-497.
3.
Barbour, R.S. (2001). Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research: A case of the tail wagging the dog? British Medical Journal, 322, 1115-1117.
4.
Beresford, E., & Hardie, A. (1996). Parents and secondary schools: A different approach? In J. Bastiani & S. Wolfendale (Eds.), Home-school work in Britain: Review, reflection and development (pp. 139-151). London: David Fulton.
5.
Blue-Banning, M., Summers, J.A., Frankland, H.C., Nelson, L.L., & Beegle, G. (2004). Dimensions of family and professional partnerships: Constructive guidelines for collaboration. Exceptional Children , 70, 167-185.
6.
Bogdan, R., & Biklen, S. (1998). Qualitative research in education: An introduction to theory and methods. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
7.
Bowen, M. (1978). Family therapy in clinical practice. New York: Jason Aronson.
8.
Brantlinger, E., Jimenez, R., Klingner, J., Pugach, M., & Richardson, V. (2005). Qualitative studies in special education. Exceptional Children, 71(2), 195-207.
9.
Bryk, A.S., & Schneider, B. (2003). Trust in schools: A core resource for school reform . Educational Leadership, 60(6), 40-44.
10.
Charmaz, K. (2000). Grounded theory: Objectivist and constructivist methods. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 509-536). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
11.
Childre, A., & Chambers, C.R. (2005). Family perceptions of student centered planning and IEP meetings. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 40, 217-233.
12.
Colarusso, R., & O'Rourke, C. (2007). Special education for all teachers (4th ed.). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt .
13.
Creswell, J. (2002). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
14.
David, M. (1998). Involvement and investment in education: Mothers and schools. Journal for a Just and Caring Education, 4, 30-46.
15.
Dominque, B., Cutler, B., & McTarnaghan, J. (2000). The experience of autism in the lives of families. In A. M. Wetherby & B. M. Prizant (Eds.), Autism spectrum disorders: A transactional developmental perspective (pp. 369-394). Baltimore: Brookes.
16.
Dunsmuir, S., Frederickson, N., & Lang, J. (2004). Building home-school trust. Journal of Educational and Child Psychology, 21(4), 110-128.
17.
Dunst, C.J., Johanson, C., Trivette, C.M., & Hamby, D. (1991). Family-oriented early intervention policies or practices: Family centered or not? Exceptional Children, 58, 115-126.
18.
Ebmeier, H., & Nicklaus, J. (1999). The impact of peer and principal collaboration supervision on teachers' trust, commitment, desire for collaboration, and efficacy. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, 14(4), 351-378.
19.
Ennis, C.D., & McCauley, M.T. (2002). Creating urban classroom communities worthy of trust. Journal of Curriculum Studies , 34(2), 149-172.
Gareau, M., & Sawatzky, D. (1995). Parents and schools working together: A qualitative study of parent-school collaboration. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 41, 462-473.
22.
Gewertz, C. (2002). "Trusting" school community linked to student gains. Education Week, 22(7), 8.
23.
Goddard, R.D. (2003). Relational networks, social trust, and norms: A social capital perspective on students' chances of academic success. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 25(1), 59-74.
24.
Hargreaves, A. (2002). Teaching and betrayal. Teachers and Teaching, 8(3/4), 393-407.
25.
Hoy, W.K., Hoffman, J., Sabo, D., & Bliss, J. (1996). The organizational climate of middle schools: The development and test of the OCDQ-RM. Journal of Educational Administration, 34(1), 41-59.
26.
Hoy, W.K., Tarter, C.J., & Witkoskie, L. (1992). Faculty trust in colleagues: Linking the principal with school effectiveness. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 26(1), 38-45.
27.
Hoy, W.K., & Tschannen-Moran, M. (1999). Five faces of trust: An empirical confirmation in urban elementary schools. Journal of School Leadership, 9(3), 184-208.
28.
Janesick, V. (2000). The choreography of qualitative research design . In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 379-399). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
29.
Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: An introduction to qualitative research interviewing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
30.
Lake, J.F., & Billingsley, B.S. (2000). An analysis of factors that contribute to parent-school conflict in special education. Remedial and Special Education, 21, 240-251.
31.
Leedy, P.D., & Ormrod, J.E. (2001). Practical research: Planning and design (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
32.
Lewicki, R.J., McAllister, D.J., & Bies, R.J. (1998). Trust and distrust: New relationships and realities . Academy of Management Review, 23(3), 438-458.
33.
Lilly, J.D., Reed, D., & Wheeler, K.G. (2004). Perceptions of psychological contract violations in school districts that serve children with autism spectrum disorder: An exploratory qualitative study. Journal of Applied School Psychology , 20(1), 27-45.
34.
McMillan, J.H., & Wergin, J.F. (2002). Understanding and evaluating educational research . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill .
35.
Miles, M., & Huberman, A. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
36.
Noddings, N. (1984). Caring: A feminine approach to ethics and moral education. Berkeley: University of California Press.
37.
Noddings, N. (1992). The challenge to care in schools: An alternative approach to education. New York: Teachers College Press.
38.
Nord, C.W., Brimhall, D., & West, J. (1997). Fathers' involvement in their children's schools (NCES 98-091). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
39.
Nord, C.W., & West, J. (2001). Fathers' and mothers' involvement in their children's schools by family type and resident status (NCES 2001-032). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
40.
Patrikakou, E.N., & Weissberg, R.P. (1999). The seven Ps of school-family partnerships. Education Week, 18, 34-36.
41.
Patton, M.Q. (1980). Qualitative evaluation methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
42.
Power, S., & Clark, A. (2000). The right to know: Parents, school reports, and parents' evenings. Research Papers in Education, 15(1), 25-48.
Rousseau, D.M., Sitkin, S.B., Burt, R.S., & Camerer, C. (1998). Not so different after all: A cross discipline view of trust. Academy of Management Review, 23(3), 393-404.
45.
Smith, P.A., Hoy, W.K., & Sweetland, S.R. (2001). Organizational health of high schools and dimensions of faculty trust. Journal of School Leadership, 12, 135-150.
46.
Soodak, L.C., & Erwin, E.J. (2000). Valued member or tolerated participant: Parents' experiences in inclusive early childhood settings. Journal of the Association for Persons With Severe Handicaps, 25(1), 29-41.
47.
Stake, R. (2000). Case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 435-454). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
48.
Stoner, J.B., & Angell, M.E. (2006). Parent perspectives on role engagement: An investigation of parents of children with ASD and their self-reported roles with education professionals. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities , 21(3), 177-189.
49.
Stoner, J.B., Bock, S.J., Thompson, J.R., Angell, M.E., Heyl, B., & Crowley, E.P. (2005). Welcome to our world: Parent perspectives of interactions between parents of young children with ASD and education professionals. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20, 39-51.
50.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
51.
Tarter, C.J., Bliss, J.R., & Hoy, W.K. (1989). School characteristics and faculty trust in secondary schools. Educational Administration Quarterly, 25(3), 294-308.
52.
Tarter, C.J., Sabo, D., & Hoy, W.K. (1995). Middle school climate, faculty trust and effectiveness: A path analysis. Journal of Research and Development in Education , 29, 41-49.
53.
Thompson, V.L., Hupcey, J.E., & Clark, M.B. (2003). The development of trust in parents of hospitalized children. Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing, 8(4), 137-147.
54.
Thomson, E., McLanahan, S.S., & Curtin, R.B. (1992). Family structure, gender, and parental socialization . Journal of Marriage and Family, 54(2), 368-378.
55.
Tschannen-Moran, M. (2004). Trust matters: Leadership for successful schools . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
56.
Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, W.K. (1998). Trust in schools: A conceptual and empirical analysis . Journal of Educational Administration, 36(3/4), 334-352.
57.
Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, W.K. (2000). A multidisciplinary analysis of the nature, meaning, and measurement of trust. Review of Educational Research, 70, 547-570.
58.
Turnbull, A.P., Summers, J.A., & Brotherson, M.J. (1984). Working with families with disabled members: A family systems approach. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Research and Training Center on Independent Living.
59.
Turnbull, A., Turnbull, R., Erwin, E., & Soodak, L. (2006). Families, professionals, and exceptionality: Positive outcomes through partnerships and trust (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/ Prentice Hall.
60.
Valenzuela, A. (1999). Subtractive schooling: U.S.-Mexican youth and the politics of caring. New York: State University of New York Press.
61.
Van Velsor, P., & Cox, D. (2000). Use of the collaborative drawing technique in school counseling practicum: An illustration of family systems. Counselor Education and Supervision, 40(2), 141-153.
