Recent research has examined overall trends in the experimental literature relating to students with emotional disturbance (ED). The current review was conducted to examine both the status of and trends in interventions designed to improve the academic functioning of students with ED. Fifty-five studies were included in the descriptive analysis, which spanned the years from 1975 to 2002. Descriptive dimensions of the research included participant demographics, settings, research designs, and dependent and independent variables. Results indicated (a) complete demographic information, especially race and socioeconomic status, was difficult to ascertain for many of the participants; (b) settings were generally special education classrooms; (c) researchers used predominantly single-subject designs; (d) treatment fidelity data were often absent; (e) few studies focused on women and girls or minorities; and (f) there has been a recent decline in both the number and type of studies published, particularly in the areas of self-management and peer tutoring. Limitations of the analysis and future research directions are examined.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
American Psychiatric Association. (1995). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, primary care version (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
2.
*Babyak, A.E., Koorland, M., & Mathes, P.G. (2000). The effects of story mapping instruction on the reading comprehension of students with behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 25, 239—258.
3.
*Bell, K., Young, K.R., Blair, M., & Nelson, R. (1990). Facilitating mainstreaming of students with behavioral disorders using classwide peer tutoring. School Psychology Review, 19, 564—573.
4.
*Cade, T., & Gunter, P.L. (2002). Teaching students with severe emotional or behavioral disorders to use a musical mnemonic technique to solve basic division calculations . Behavioral Disorders, 27, 208—214.
*Carr, S.C., & Punzo, R.P. (1993). The effects of self-monitoring of academic accuracy and productivity on the performance of students with behavioral disorders . Behavioral Disorders, 18, 241—250.
7.
*Center, D.B., Deitz, S.M., & Kaufman, M.E. (1982). Student ability, task difficulty, and inappropriate classroom behavior: A study of children with behavior disorders. Behavior Modification, 6, 355—374.
8.
Clarke, S., Dunlap, G., & Stichter, J.P. (2002). A descriptive analysis of intervention research in emotional and behavioral disorders from 1980 through 1999. Behavior Modification, 26, 659—683.
9.
*Cochran, L., Feng, H., Cartledge, G., & Hamilton, S. (1993). The effects of cross-age tutoring on the academic achievement, social behaviors, and self-perceptions of low-achieving African-American males with behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 18, 292—302.
10.
*Cosden, M., Gannon, C., & Haring, T.G. (1995). Teacher-control versus student-control over choice of task and reinforcement for students with severe behavior problems. Journal of Behavioral Education, 5, 11—27.
11.
Council for Exceptional Children. (1987). Academy for e fective instruction: Working with mildly handicapped students . Reston, VA: Author.
12.
Cullinan, D. (2002). Students with emotional and behavior disorders: An introduction for teachers and other helping professionals. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill- Prentice Hall.
13.
*Davis, R.W., & Hajicek, J.O. (1985). Effects of self-instructional training and strategy training on a mathematics task with severely behaviorally disordered students . Behavioral Disorders, 11, 275—282.
14.
*Dawson, L., Venn, M.L., & Gunter P. L. (2000). The effects of teacher versus computer reading models. Behavioral Disorders, 25, 105—113.
15.
*DeMagistris, R.J., & Imber, S.C. (1980). The effects of life space interviewing on academic and social performance of behaviorally disordered children. Behavioral Disorders, 6, 12—25.
16.
Dunlap, G., & Childs, K.E. (1996). Intervention research in emotional and behavioral disorders: An analysis of studies from 1980 to 1993. Behavioral Disorders, 21, 125—136.
17.
Dunlap, G., Clarke, S., & Steiner, M. (1999). Intervention research in behavioral and developmental disabilities: 1980—1997. Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions, 1, 170—180.
18.
*Falk, K.B., & Wehby, J.H. (2001). The effects of peer-assisted learning strategies on the beginning reading skills of young children with emotional or behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 26, 344—359.
19.
*Fish, M.C., & Mendola, L.R. (1986). The effect of self-instruction training on homework completion in an elementary special education class. School Psychology Review, 15, 268—276.
20.
*Foley, R.M., & Epstein, M.H. (1993). A structured instructional system for developing the school survival skills of adolescents with behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 18, 139—147.
21.
*Franca, V.M., Kerr, M.M., Reitz, A.L., & Lambert, D. (1990). Peer tutoring among behaviorally disordered students: Academic and social benefits to tutor and tutee. Education and Treatment of Children, 13, 109—128.
22.
Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L.S., Thompson, A., Svenson, E., Yen, L., Al Otaiba, S., et al. (2001). Peer-assisted learning strategies in reading . Remedial and Special Education, 22, 15—21.
23.
Gable, R.V., & Kerr, M.M. (1980). Behaviorally disordered adolescents as academic change agents. In R. B. Rutherford, Jr., A. G. Prieto, & J. E. McGlothlin (Eds.), Severe behavior disorders of children and youth (Vol. 4, pp. 117—124). Reston, VA: Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders .
24.
*Glomb, N., & West, R.P. (1990). Teaching behaviorally disordered adolescents to use self-management skills for improving the completeness, accuracy, and neatness of creative writing homework assignments. Behavioral Disorders , 15, 233—242.
25.
Good, R.H., & Kaminski, R.A. (2002). Dynamic indicators of basic early literacy skills (6th ed.). Eugene, OR: Institute for the Development of Educational Achievement.
26.
Gresham, F.M. (1989). Assessment of treatment integrity in school consultation and prereferral intervention. School Psychology Review, 18, 37— 50.
27.
Gunter, P.L., & Denny, R.K. (1998). Trends and issues in research regarding academic instruction of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 24, 44—50.
28.
Hallahan, D.P., & Kauffman, J.M. (2000). Exceptional learners: Introduction to special education (8th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
29.
*Hawkins, J. (1988). Antecedent pausing as a direct instruction tactic for adolescents with severe behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 13, 263—272.
30.
Hoagwood, K., Burns, B.J., & Weisz, J.R. (2002). A profitable conjunction: From science to service in children's mental health. In B. J. Burns & K. Hoagwood (Eds.), Community treatment for youth: Evidence-based interventions for severe emotional and behavioral disorders (pp. 327—338). New York : Oxford University Press.
31.
*Hughes, C.A., Deshler, D.D., Ruhl, K.L., & Schumaker, J.B. (1993). Test-taking strategy instruction for adolescents with emotional and behavior disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 1, 189—198.
32.
*Jolivette, K., Wehby, J.H., Canale, J., & Massey, G.H. (2001). Effects of choice-making opportunities on the behavior of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 26, 131—145.
33.
Kauffman, J.M. (2001). Characteristics of emotional and behavioral disorders of children and youth (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill- Prentice Hall.
34.
Kazdin, A.E. (1977). Assessing the clinical or applied significance of behavior change through social validation. Behavior Modification , 1, 427— 452.
35.
Keogh, B.K., Major-Kingsley, S., Omori-Gordon, H., & Reid, H.P. (1982). A system of marker variables for the field of learning disabilities. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
36.
Kratochwill, T.R., & Stoiber, K.C. (2002). Evidence-based interventions in school psychology: Conceptual foundations of the Procedural and Coding Manual of Division 16 and the Society for the Study of School Psychology Task Force. School Psychology Quarterly, 17, 341—390.
37.
Lakin, K.C. (1983). Research-based knowledge and professional practice in special education for emotionally disturbed students. Behavioral Disorders, 8, 128—137.
38.
Lane, K.L., Beebe-Frankenberger, M.E., Lambros, K.M., & Pierson, M. (2001). Designing effective interventions for children at-risk for antisocial behavior: An integrated model of components necessary for making valid inferences. Psychology in the Schools, 38, 365—379.
39.
*Leger, H.J., Groff, D., Harris, V.W., Finfrock, L.R., Weaver, F.H., & Kratochwill, T.R. (1979). An instructional package to teach communication behaviors in a classroom setting. Journal of School Psychology, 17, 339— 346.
40.
*Levendoski, L.S., & Cartledge, G. (2000). Self-monitoring for elementary school children with serious emotional disturbances: Classroom applications for increased academic responding. Behavioral Disorders, 25, 211—224.
41.
*Lloyd, J.W., Bateman, D.F., Landrum, T.J., & Hallahan, D. P. (1989). Self-recording of attention versus productivity. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis , 22, 315—323.
42.
Locke, W.R., & Fuchs, L.S. (1995). Effects of peer-mediated reading instruction on the on-task behavior and social interaction of children with behavior disorders . Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 3, 92—99.
43.
*Maher, C.A. (1982). Behavioral effects of using conduct problem adolescents as cross-age tutors. Psychology in the Schools, 19, 360—364.
44.
*Maher, C.A. (1984). Handicapped adolescents as cross-age tutors: Program description and evaluation. Exceptional Children, 51, 56—63.
45.
*Mastropieri, M.A., Emerick, K., & Scruggs, T.E. (1988). Mnemonic instruction of science concepts. Behavioral Disorders, 14, 48—56.
46.
May, L. (1996). Teaching math: Extending problem solving. Teaching Pre-K to 8, 26(4), 22—23.
47.
McConaughy, S.H., Kay, P.J., & Fitzgerald, M. (2000). How long is long enough? Outcomes for a school-based prevention program. Exceptional Children, 67, 21—34.
48.
*McCurdy, B.L., Cundari, L., & Lentz, F.E. (1990). Enhancing instructional efficiency: An examination of time delay and the opportunity to observe instruction. Education and Treatment of Children, 13, 226—238.
49.
McEvoy, A., & Welker, R. (2000). Antisocial behavior, academic behavior, and school climate: A critical review. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 8, 130—140.
50.
*McLaughlin, T.F. (1984). A comparison of self-recording and self-recording plus consequences for on-task and assignment completion. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 9, 185—192.
51.
*McLaughlin, T.F. (1991). Use of a personalized system of instruction with and without a same-day retake contingency on spelling performance of behaviorally disordered children. Behavioral Disorders, 16, 127—132.
52.
*McLaughlin, T.F. (1992). Effects of written feedback in reading on behaviorally disordered students. Journal of Educational Research, 85, 312—316.
53.
*McLaughlin, T.F., Burgess, N., & Sackville-West, L. (1981). Effects of self-recording and self-recording + matching on academic performance. Child Behavior Therapy, 3, 17—27.
54.
*McLaughlin, T.F., & Truhlicka, M. (1983). Effects on academic performance of self-recording and self-recording and matching with behaviorally disordered students: A replication . Behavioral Engineering, 8(2), 69—74.
55.
*Miller, M., Miller, S.R., Wheeler, J., & Selinger, J. (1989). Can a single-classroom treatment approach change academic performance and behavioral characteristics in severely behaviorally disordered adolescents: An experimental inquiry. Behavioral Disorders, 14, 215—225.
*Neilans, T.H., & Israel, A.C. (1981). Towards maintenance and generalization of behavior change: Teaching children self-regulation and self-instructional skills. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 5, 189—195.
58.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. (2002). Retrieved November 20, 2002, from http://www.ed.gov/offices/OESE/esea/
59.
*Penno, D.A., Frank, A.R., & Wacker, D.P. (2000). Instructional accommodations for adolescent students with severe emotional or behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 25, 325—343.
60.
*Prater, M.A., Hogan, S., & Miller, S.R. (1992). Using self-monitoring to improve on-task behavior and academic skills of an adolescent with mild handicaps across special and regular education settings. Education and Treatment of Children , 15(1), 43—55.
61.
Pressley, M., Roehrig, A., Bogner, K., Raphael, L.M., & Dolezal, S. (2002). Balanced literacy instruction. Focus onExceptional Children, 34(5), 1—14.
62.
*Rieth, H.J., Polsgrove, L., Raia, S., Patterson, N., & Buchman, K. (1977). The use of free time to increase the reading achievement of three students placed in programs for behavior disordered children. Behavioral Disorders, 3, 45—54.
63.
*Rose, T.L. (1984). Effects of previewing on the oral reading of mainstreamed behaviorally disordered students. Behavioral Disorders, 10, 33—39.
64.
Ruhl, K.L., & Berlinghoff, D.H. (1992). Research on improving behaviorally disordered students' academic performance: A review of the literature . Behavioral Disorders, 17, 178—190.
65.
*Salend, S.J., & Sonnenschein, P. (1989). Validating the effectiveness of a cooperative learning strategy through direct observation. Journal of School Psychology, 27, 47—58.
66.
*Salend, S.J., & Washin, B. (1988). Team-assisted individualization with handicapped adjudicated youth. Exceptional Children, 55, 174—180.
67.
*Schloss, P.J., Harriman, N.E., & Pfefier, K. (1985). Application of a sequential prompt reduction technique to the independent composition performance of behaviorally disordered youth . Behavioral Disorders, 12, 17—23.
68.
*Scruggs, T.E., & Marsing, L. (1987). Teaching test-taking skills to behaviorally disordered students. Behavioral Disorders, 13, 240—244.
69.
*Scruggs, T.E., & Osguthorpe, R.T. (1986). Tutoring interventions within special education settings: A comparison of cross-age and peer tutoring . Psychology in the Schools, 23, 187—193.
70.
*Shisler, L., Top, B.L., & Osguthorpe, R.T. (1986). British Columbia Journal of Special Education, 10, 101—117.
71.
Skiba, R., & Casey, A. (1985). Interventions for behaviorally disordered students: A quantitative review and methodological critique. Behavioral Disorders, 10, 239—252.
72.
*Skinner, C.H., Belfiore, P.J., & Pierce, N. (1992). Cover, copy, and compare: Increasing geography accuracy in students with behavior disorders. School Psychology Review, 21, 73—81.
73.
*Skinner, C.H., Ford, J.M., & Yunker, B.D. (1991). A comparison of instructional response requirements on the multiplication performance of behaviorally disordered students. Behavioral Disorders, 17, 56—65.
74.
*Skinner, C.H., Johnson, C.W., Larkin, M.J., Lessley, D.J., & Glowacki, M.L. (1995). The influence of rate of presentation during taped-words interventions on reading performance. Journal of Behavioral and Emotional Disorders, 3, 214—223.
75.
*Skinner, C.H., & Shapiro, E.S. (1989). A comparison of taped-words and drill interventions on reading fluency in adolescents with behavior disorders. Education and Treatment of Children, 12, 123—133.
76.
*Skinner, C.H., Smith, E.S., & McLean, J.E. (1994). The effects of inter-tribal interval duration on sight-word learning rates in children with behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 19, 98—107.
77.
*Skinner, C.H., Turco, T.L., Beatty, K.L., & Rasavage, C. (1989). Cover, copy, and compare: A method for increasing multiplication performance. School Psychology Review, 18, 412—420.
78.
*Smith, D.J., Nelson, J.R., Young, K.R., & West, R.P. (1992). The effect of a self-management procedure on the classroom and academic behavior of students with mild handicaps. School Psychology Review, 21, 59— 72.
79.
Snow, C.E., Burns, M.S., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing reading di ficulties in young children . Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
80.
*Stowitscheck, C.E., Hecimovic, A., Stowitschek, J.J., & Shores, R.E. (1982). Behaviorally disordered adolescents as peer tutors: Immediate and generative effects on instructional performance and spelling achievement. Behavioral Disorders, 7, 136—148.
81.
*Stowitscheck, C.E., Lewis, B.L., Shores, R.E., & Ezzell, D.L. (1980). Procedures for analyzing student performance data to generate hypotheses for the purpose of educational decision making. Behavioral Disorders, 5, 136—150.
82.
Sutherland, K.S., & Wehby, J.H. (2001). Exploring the relationship between increased opportunities to respond to academic requests and the academic and behavioral outcomes of students with EBD. Remedial and Special Education, 22, 113—121.
83.
*Swain, J.C., & McLaughlin, T.F. (1998). The effects of bonus contingencies in a classwide token program on math accuracy with middle-school students with behavioral disorders. Behavioral Interventions, 13, 11—19.
84.
Swanson, H.L., Hoskyn, M., & Lee, C. (1999). Interventions for students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis of treatment outcomes. New York: Guilford Press.
85.
*Sweeney, W.J., Salva, E., Cooper, J.O., & Talbert-Johnson, C. (1993). Using self-evaluation to improve difficult-to-read handwriting of secondary students. Journal of Behavioral Education, 3, 427—443.
86.
Top, B.L., & Osguthorpe, R.T. (1987). Reverse-role tutoring: The effects of handicapped students tutoring regular class students. The Elementary School Journal, 87, 413—423.
87.
U.S. Department of Education. (1998). Twentieth annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author.
88.
U.S. Department of Education. (2001). Twenty-third annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author.
89.
Vadasy, P.F., Jenkins, J.R., Antil, L., Wayne, S., & O'Connor, R.F. (1997). The effectiveness of one-to-one tutoring by community tutors for at-risk beginning readers. Learning Disability Quarterly, 20, 126—139.
90.
Wagner, M.M. (1995). Outcomes for youths with serious emotional disturbance in secondary school and early adulthood. The Future of Children: Critical Issues for Children and Youths, 5(2), 90—112.
91.
Walker, H.M. (2000). Investigating school-related behavior disorders: Lessons learned from a thirty-year research career. Exceptional Children, 66, 151—161.
92.
Walker, H.M., Forness, S.R., Kauffman, J.M., Epstein, M.H., Gresham, F.M., Nelson, C.M., et al. (1998). Macro-social validation: Referencing outcomes in behavioral disorders to societal issues and problems. Behavioral Disorders, 24, 7—18.
93.
*West, R.P., & Sloane, H.N. (1986). Teacher presentation rate and point delivery rate: Effects on classroom disruption, performance, accuracy, and response rate . Behavior Modification, 10, 267—286.
94.
Wolf, M.M. (1978). Social validity: The case for subjective measurement or how applied behavior analysis is finding its heart. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 203—214.
