Rumination,Depressive Symptoms,and Anxiety Among Latinx College Students: The Moderating Role of Familism and Respect

Abstract

Familism, a core cultural value among Mexican Americans, often serves to protect Latinx individuals from negative mental health outcomes as compared to their non-Latinx peers. Yet, its moderating effect on passive coping strategies, particularly rumination, has been called into question. This study explores how familism, alongside another key cultural value, respect, may provide a more nuanced understanding of how collectivist cultural values work to protect mental health differently across individuals and contexts. In a sample of 191 Latinx college students, regression analyses tested whether familism and respect moderated the effect of rumination on symptoms of depression and anxiety. While familism significantly predicted depressive symptoms, and anxiety, it did not moderate the relationship between rumination and depressive symptoms or anxiety. On the other hand, respect was found to moderate the relationship between rumination and depressive and anxiety symptoms in a buffering way: as rumination increased, those with higher levels of respect experienced fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety than those with lower levels of respect. These findings demonstrate that there are limitations to the moderating effect of familism for Latinx college students and that the cultural value of respect may offer a protective effect that warrants further investigation.

Keywords

Latinx familism respect rumination mental health

Introduction

Mental health is a growing problem among college students. One factor that can exacerbate mental health problems is rumination, defined as repeated negative thoughts and emotions (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). Individuals prone to rumination have been found to experience more severe mental health problems (Rickerby et al., 2024), including an increase in levels of depressive symptoms and anxiety (Topper et al., 2017). As such, there has long been a push to understand what factors may buffer the negative effects of rumination on mental health. Yet, research is limited when it comes to the challenges that Latinx students face when addressing these issues (Geegan et al., 2023). One factor that can have a protective effect on mental health for Latinx individuals is familism, defined as a cultural value focused on the prioritization of family above oneself (Knight et al., 2010). Those who report higher levels of familism experience fewer negative mental health symptoms (Campos et al., 2014; Stein et al., 2015). Similarly, the cultural value of respect has also been shown to be associated with adaptive outcomes (Choi et al., 2023). However, little is known about their interaction with rumination on mental health. Exploring this interaction could highlight the unique effects it has on Latinx college students as they face stressors such as balancing their academics and family expectations. Understanding these complex dynamics and their possible buffering effect may allow for more targeted future interventions to improve the well-being of Latinx students. Broadly, this study seeks to examine how familism and respect moderate the effect of rumination on depressive and anxiety symptoms experienced by Latinx college students.

Rumination and Mental Health

One particularly problematic response to stress is rumination. This passive coping strategy involves repetitive thoughts focused on problems and negative emotional experiences (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). Consequently, rumination has been found to increase mental health-related problems by prolonging negative moods and physiological stress (Watkins & Roberts, 2020). For example, in an adolescent sample, higher levels of rumination were found to be strongly correlated with increased depressive and anxiety symptoms (Wilkinson et al., 2013). Beyond those concurrent correlations, elevated levels of rumination are predictive of later development of depressive symptoms (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2007; Whisman et al., 2019) in addition to being associated with a greater risk of major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder (Rickerby et al., 2024). Together, these findings show that there is a significant psychological toll on individuals who experience frequent rumination symptoms (Smith & Alloy, 2009). With college students’ rates of mental health conditions and counseling seeking rising in the past decade, it is important to explore the ways these extended negative cognitions influence young adults’ mental health to enhance our understanding of how to buffer its effects (Lipson et al., 2019).

Many of the studies exploring rumination utilize predominantly mixed racial-ethnic groups or non-Latinx samples, thus limiting the generalizability of these findings to other pan-ethnic groups. It is crucial to consider the effects of rumination among the Latinx population because, despite their lower rates of mental health issues in comparison to White individuals (Vilsaint et al., 2019), they are less likely to seek out or have the resources to obtain mental health services (Mitrzyk et al., 2023; Ojeda & McGuire, 2006). Hence, there is a need to investigate naturally occurring buffers that may protect against the effects of rumination. Additionally, there is little research on how rumination influences different mental health outcomes in Latinx individuals. One study that examined a Latinx sample found that rumination mediated the relationship between subjective social status and anxiety and depression (Talavera et al., 2018). The authors suggested that those with low subjective social status tend to ruminate more, increasing the severity of depressive and anxiety symptoms. Another study found that in a Latinx sample, greater levels of rumination were predictive of greater sadness and anxiety (Zawadzki et al., 2022). Despite these findings, knowledge remains limited, thus highlighting the need for additional research to address the impact of rumination on Latinx college students and their mental health.

Familism and Respect as Moderators

The values of familism and respect are core components of Latinx culture that support the collectivistic nature of the culture through promoting interdependence and closeness (Campos & Kim, 2017). Familism, or familismo, is broadly defined as a strong identification with and attachment to the family (Knight et al., 2010), and it encourages frequent engagement in positive social interactions with family members (Campos & Kim, 2017). Those who score high on measures of familism are found to provide different forms of support to family members and to also prefer family members when seeking social support themselves (Perez & Cruess, 2014). Respect, or respeto, is characterized by politeness and regard for authority figures and elders within the family as well as beyond (Caldera et al., 2014). The practice of respect involves engaging in civil discourse and avoiding topics of discussion that may cause discomfort or bring negativity (Campos & Kim, 2017; Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2020). While this may preserve social harmony, it may encourage suppression of emotion, limiting the individual’s ability to openly dissent or express their emotions (Halgunseth et al., 2006; Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2020). The duality of respect suggests that it may support well-being by helping individuals regulate their emotional reactions, but it may also promote avoidance of conflict or disagreement. This is important to consider in the effects of respect on mental health outcomes. Although familism and respect can overlap in terms of the importance placed on deferring to family members, there are key differences. For example, familism emphasizes the family’s well-being (Knight et al., 2010), while respect focuses on being respectful, specifically to those higher in the family hierarchy (Caldera et al., 2014).

Both familism and respect have been found to have protective effects on mental health outcomes. Previous research has found familism acts against negative mental health and related outcomes (Stein et al., 2015; Umaña-Taylor et al., 2011). In addition, individuals higher in familism have been recognized as being more willing to seek support from their family members in times of need (Valdivieso-Mora et al., 2016). This recognition aligns with the finding that familism indirectly predicts higher psychological health via familial social support and closeness (Campos et al., 2014). These findings have ultimately led to familism being repeatedly noted as a protective factor, especially among Latinx college students. However, research on familism as a protective factor does display some inconsistencies. Higher measures of familism have also been associated with greater levels of distress, particularly among those who hold a caregiving role in the family (Perez & Cruess, 2014). In addition, adherence to familism or prioritization of the family has been related to a more negative view of counsel-seeking and poorer mental health among college students (Choi et al., 2023). These inconsistencies suggest that the protective function of familism may be context-dependent, possibly varying with the nature of familial obligations or the extent to which individuals rely on or avoid familial support.

In contrast, respect as a cultural value—while conceptually linked to familism—has received far less empirical attention. The limited existing research suggests that respect may also serve a protective role. For example, Corona and colleagues found that Latinx college students adhering to the value of respect report lower depressive and anxiety symptoms (Corona et al., 2017). Similarly, respect has also been positively associated with mental health (Choi et al., 2023) and practicing respect has previously been noted to potentially play a role in how Mexican American college students build a sense of resilience (Morgan Consoli & Llamas, 2013). Yet, the specific mechanisms through which respect operates and its potential to moderate stress-related processes remain underexplored.

Current Study

Given the gaps mentioned above, the current study seeks to clarify the roles of familism and respect by examining their moderating effects on the relationship between rumination and mental health, operationalized by depressive and anxiety symptoms, in a sample of Latinx college students. By investigating these cultural values as distinct constructs and testing their interactive effects, this study aims to contribute a more nuanced understanding of how cultural factors influence psychological adjustment in Latinx college students. First, we hypothesize that higher levels of rumination will be associated with higher levels of depressive and anxiety symptoms in Latinx college students. Further, our second hypothesis is that familism and respect will moderate the relationships between rumination and depressive and anxiety symptoms, specifically weakening the strength of rumination as a predictor of poor mental health in Latinx college students.

Methods

Participants

Undergraduate students from a public university in California’s San Joaquin Valley who self-identified as Hispanic/Latino/a/x participated in this study. The final sample included 191 participants (80.1% female, 19.9% male) aged 18 to 25 years (M = 19.64, SD = 1.55). Most participants were born in the U.S. (79.1%) and reported Spanish as their native language (62.8%). Although the San Joaquin Valley includes a large Mexican-origin population, we did not collect specific country-of-origin information for parents or grandparents. However, 17.3% of participants reported being born in Mexico, 76.4% reported that their parents were born outside of the United States, and 91.6% reported that their grandparents were born outside of the United States. Nearly half of all participants (47%) reported their family’s subjective social status as slightly lower than average in comparison to their community (M = 4.64, SD = 1.63).

Procedure

The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at the institution where the research was conducted. To recruit participants, a campus-based subject pool system (SONA System) was used. Data for the current paper came from the baseline portion of a larger study investigating how individuals experience culture in daily life. The eligible participants attended a lab session on campus where they provided informed consent and completed an online questionnaire via Qualtrics, where they answered demographic questions and a variety of cultural and mental health measures. Participants were then compensated with course credit.

Measures

Demographics

Participants reported on their gender, age, and subjective family SES. Gender was recoded into 0 = male and 1 = female for the analysis. MacArthur’s Scale of Subjective Social Status was used for subjective family SES (Adler et al., 2000). On this scale, participants were given a picture of a 10-rung ladder and asked to rate their SES in relation to their community. Those higher on the ladder and closer to 10 considered their families wealthier and more educated relative to their community, while those lower and closer to 1 considered themselves less wealthy and less educated compared to their community.

Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms

Participants completed a 7-item depression subscale and a 7-item anxiety subscale from the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). Participants answered on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (never) to 3 (almost always). Example items include “I felt that I had nothing to look forward to” for the depression subscale and “I felt I was close to panic” for the anxiety subscale. Both measures had good reliability, with the depression measure having a Cronbach’s alpha of .87 and anxiety having an alpha of .79 in this sample.

Rumination

The short version of the Rumination and Reflection Questionnaire (RRQ) was used to measure rumination (Trapnell & Campbell, 1999). Participants answered the 11-item rumination subscale on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A sample item is: “My attention is often focused on aspects of myself I wish I’d stop thinking about.” The rumination measure had excellent reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha of .94 in this sample.

Familism and Respect

To measure familism and respect, participants completed the Mexican American Cultural Values Scales (MACVS; Knight et al., 2010). All items were scored from 1 (not at all) to 5 (completely) with an additional not applicable option available. The familism measure consisted of the three subscales of support, obligation, and referent. Familism support consisted of six items and included statements such as, “Family provides a sense of security because they will always be there for you.” Familism obligation was comprised of five items and included statements such as, “If a relative is having a hard time financially, one should help them out if possible.” Familism referent consisted of five items and involved statements such as, “When it comes to important decisions, the family should ask for advice from close relatives.” We explored each subscale separately but found consistent results regardless of whether it was the total familism score or the support, obligation, or referent subscales. Hence, the subscales were combined for a more parsimonious model. The familism measure had a Cronbach’s alpha of .87, which indicated good reliability. The respect measure, which also comes from the MACVS, was composed of eight items and consisted of statements such as, “Children should respect adult relatives as if they were parents.” This measure also had good reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha of .81.

Analytic Plan

Zero-order correlations and descriptive statistics were conducted for all variables. First, regressions were conducted to examine the relationships between rumination and depressive and anxiety symptoms with covariates. Then, moderation analyses were conducted using PROCESS Macro model 1 (Hayes, 2022). This model tested to assess if familism and respect moderate the relationship between rumination and depressive symptoms and rumination and anxiety symptoms. Each model analyzed depressive and anxiety symptoms separately and included age, gender, and subjective family SES as covariates. In order to probe any significant interactions, simple slope analyses were performed.

Results

Rumination Predicting Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms

Descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations are presented in Table 1. To begin, a linear regression analysis was conducted to determine the effect of rumination on depressive symptoms. In the initial model, rumination significantly predicted depressive symptoms, F(1,189) = 58.83, p < .001, R² = .24. A second model was conducted to evaluate whether this relationship remained when controlling for age, sex, and subjective family SES. The overall model was significant, F(4,186) = 19.88, p < .001, R² = .30. Rumination remained a significant predictor of depressive symptoms, β = .37, p < .001. Among the covariates, both subjective family SES (β = −0.13, p = .045) and sex (β = −0.22, p < .001) were significant predictors, whereas age was not significant predictor.

Table 1.

Correlation Matrix and Descriptives for Study Variables.

Variable	1	2	3	4	5
1. Anxiety Symptoms	—
2. Depressive Symptoms	.66***	—
3. Rumination	.54***	.49***	—
4. Familism	−.18*	−.33***	−.16*	—
5. Respect	−.23**	−.28***	−.24***	.64***	—
Mean	.72	.71	3.44	3.74	3.54
SD	.57	.65	.90	.57	.66
Min	.00	.00	1.18	1.57	1.63
Max	2.71	3.00	5.00	4.93	5.00

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p ≤ .001.

Similar analyses were run to determine the effect of rumination on anxiety. In the first model, rumination significantly predicted anxiety, F(1,189) = 79.26, p < .001, R² = .30. The second model that evaluated the relationship when controlling for age, sex, and subjective family SES was significant as well, F(4,186) = 22.84, p < .001, R² = .33. Rumination was a significant predictor of anxiety, β = .54, p < .001. Among the covariates, subjective family SES (β = −0.18, p = .003) was a significant predictor, whereas age and sex were not significant predictors.

Familism and Respect as Moderators

Our second aim tested the moderating effect of familism on the associations between rumination and depressive and anxiety symptoms (analyzed separately). The model testing familism as a moderator for depressive symptoms was statistically significant, F(6,184) = 17.74, p < .001, R² = .367 (Table 2), but familism did not significantly moderate the relationship between rumination and depressive symptoms. The model testing familism as a moderator for anxiety was also statistically significant, F(6,184) = 15.898, p < .001, R² = .341 (Table 3), but again, familism did not significantly moderate the relationship between rumination and anxiety.

Table 2.

Familism as a Moderator of the Effect of Rumination on Depressive Symptoms.

Variable	b	SE	t	p	95% CI
Variable	b	SE	t	p	LL	UL
Familism and Depressive Symptoms
Rum	0.88	0.32	2.77	.006	0.25	1.50
Fam	0.21	0.30	0.71	.481	−0.38	0.81
Rum × Fam	−0.14	0.08	−1.73	.085	−0.30	0.02
Age	−03	0.03	−1.25	.214	−0.08	0.02
Sex	−0.33	0.10	−3.45	<.001	−0.53	−0.14
SES	−0.04	0.02	−1.70	.090	−0.09	0.01

Note. Rum = rumination; Res = respect; SES = subjective family SES; Fam = familism; CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit.

Table 3.

Familism as a Moderator of the Effect of Rumination on Anxiety.

Variable	b	SE	t	p	95% CI
Variable	b	SE	t	p	LL	UL
Familism and Anxiety
Rum	0.64	0.28	2.26	.025	0.08	1.21
Fam	1.20	0.27	0.73	.466	−0.34	0.73
Rum × Fam	−0.08	0.07	−1.11	.268	−0.23	0.06
Age	−0.00	0.02	−0.05	.960	−0.06	0.04
Sex	−0.06	0.09	−0.72	.475	−0.23	0.11
SES	−0.06	0.02	−2.86	.005	−0.10	−0.02

Note. Rum = rumination; Res = respect; SES = subjective family SES; Fam = familism; CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit.

The model testing respect as a moderator for depressive symptoms was statistically significant, F(6,184) = 16.726, p < .001, R² = .353 (Table 4). Respect moderated the relationship between rumination and depressive symptoms. As shown in Figure 1, for all participants, as rumination increased, depressive symptoms increased. However, the increase in depressive symptoms as rumination increased was steeper for those lowest in respect, whereas higher levels of respect partially buffered the negative effect of rumination.

Table 4.

Respect as a Moderator of the Effect of Rumination on Depressive Symptoms.

Variable	b	SE	t	p	95% CI
Variable	b	SE	t	p	LL	UL
Respect and Depressive Symptoms
Rum	1.01	0.24	4.13	<.001	0.53	1.49
Respect	0.49	0.24	2.02	.045	0.01	0.97
Rum × Res	−0.19	0.07	−2.79	.006	−0.32	−0.05
Age	−0.02	0.03	−0.78	.436	−0.07	0.03
Sex	−0.37	0.10	−3.77	<.001	−0.56	0.01
SES	−0.04	0.02	−1.58	.117	−0.09	0.01

Note. Rum = rumination; Res = respect; SES = subjective family SES; CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit.

Figure 1.

Moderating effect of respect on rumination and depressive symptoms.

The model testing respect as a moderator for anxiety was also statistically significant, F(6,184) = 16.480, p < .001, R² = .350 (Table 5). Respect moderated the relationship between rumination and anxiety. As shown in Figure 2, as rumination increased, anxiety symptoms increased. However, similar to the previous model predicting depressive symptoms, the increase in anxiety symptoms as rumination increased was steeper for those lowest in respect, whereas higher levels of respect partially buffered the negative effect of rumination.

Table 5.

Respect as a Moderator of the Effect of Rumination on Anxiety.

Variable	b	SE	t	p	95% CI
Variable	b	SE	t	p	LL	UL
Respect and Anxiety
Rum	0.76	0.22	3.52	<.001	0.33	1.19
Res	0.35	0.21	1.64	.102	−0.07	0.77
Rum × Res	−0.12	0.06	−2.02	.044	−0.24	−0.00
Age	0.00	0.02	0.14	.89	−0.04	0.05
Sex	−0.08	0.09	−0.89	.372	−0.25	0.09
SES	−0.06	0.02	−2.75	.007	−0.10	−0.02

Note. Rum = rumination; Res = respect; SES = subjective family SES; Fam = familism; CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit.

Figure 2.

Moderating effect of respect on rumination and anxiety.

Discussion

The present study examined the effects of rumination on mental health among Latinx college students. We found that higher levels of rumination were associated with higher reported depressive and anxiety symptoms. This is important because it demonstrates that, in Latinx college students, rumination can have a negative effect on mental health. This finding supports previous research that found that rumination was predictive of greater sadness and anxiety in a Latinx sample (Zawadzki et al., 2022). Given the minimal research on rumination in this population, this finding helps to solidify the current understanding of rumination and its psychological effects in this sample and context.

The present study also explored the moderating effects of familism and respect on the relationship between rumination and depressive and anxiety symptoms. Based on prior literature (Campos et al., 2014; Corona et al., 2017), we hypothesized that both familism and respect may be a buffer against the negative effects of rumination on depressive and anxiety symptoms. Interestingly, our findings show that familism was not a significant moderator in both models. This could be attributed to the additional stress that prioritizing the family may produce when students are experiencing negative mental health symptoms. We did, however, find that respect was a significant moderator. One possible explanation of these findings is that the cultural expectations around respect provide a guideline for how an individual should behave. This explanation aligns with research showing that predictable behavioral patterns reduce internal conflict and anxiety by providing structured guidelines for how to act in uncertain situations (Lang et al., 2022). It is possible that when an individual knows when to defer or avoid a certain topic, they become less likely to ruminate on those interactions. Although additional research is needed to understand this process, these results suggest that respect may buffer the effects of rumination by shaping how individuals cognitively respond to stress. Combined, these findings support the previous research on familism that has found some inconsistencies in familism as a protective factor for Latinx individuals (Choi et al., 2023; Perez & Cruess, 2014). This highlights the limitations in its protective effects and the need to explore additional ways in which Latinx individual utilize their family as a form of support.

The results also support research that has found associations between respect and better mental health outcomes (Choi et al., 2023; Corona et al., 2017). Overall, this suggests that the individual cultural values within the MACVS capture nuanced differences that may be protective of their mental health in varying ways. The differences in these effects may stem from the nature of respect itself. Although familism has been explored in greater depth in prior literature, respect has received far less attention. As a result, this limits the ability to explain the mechanisms at play in the current study. Respect is contingent on the perceived hierarchy, meaning that there is a distinct separation between the person of authority and the individual in terms of influence (Knight et al., 2010). When the power dynamic is unequal, it is possible that respect guides behavior through deference to those with greater perceived authority. This, in turn, shapes the individual’s response both emotionally and cognitively within those dynamics. In contrast, familism emphasizes a deeper connection within the family (Campos & Kim, 2017). For example, when individuals feel familial support (familism support), they may seek to provide for their family both physically and emotionally (familism obligations) and use family as the foundation of their beliefs and actions (familism referent). All these aspects involve the interconnectedness of family, whereas respect takes the views of the family in terms of their power, influence, or earned respect and guides behavior accordingly. As a result, familism reflects shared responsibility and support, whereas respect involves a more directional influence where the individual modifies their behavior in response to authority. This dynamic may shape whether stress is internalized. As a result, it is important to consider whether familism may be demonstrated more through emotional connection and commitment. It is possible that the prioritization of family may conflict with the ability to care for one’s mental health, specifically in association with rumination. With further investigation, it could be determined whether familism may contribute to rumination due to different emotional aspects of the value, such as feelings of obligation or even guilt when prioritizing oneself. Additionally, it is worth analyzing the nuances of both cultural values and how they are experienced and enacted.

Implications

Overall, our findings emphasize that both respect and familism are important factors in Latinx college students, though they function in different ways when it comes to mental health. Respect specifically should be considered when implementing culturally responsive mental health interventions in order to be more effective. Previous research has already demonstrated that culturally-based practices, in addition to family-based approaches, are effective in this population (Pineros-Leano et al., 2023). Intervention programs may benefit from adding respect-based practices, where the concept of hierarchy is valued within the treatment process. Further research and practice should evaluate respect-based approaches and their effectiveness in short- and long-term mental health outcomes.

Limitations and Future Directions

The study includes several limitations. First, the data used in this study was from a single wave, preventing any causal claims. Another limitation is potential self-report bias, as research indicates that Mexican Americans’ responses tend to be more extreme or acquiescent when endorsing familism (Davis et al., 2011). It may be possible that over-reporting of agreement may explain the lack of a significant buffering effect as participants are misrepresenting their actual level of familism. Over-reporting of agreements tends to come from a social desirability bias as participants want to present themselves in a positive light. Rewording survey questions to balance positive and negative verbiage, along with providing context for why someone might deviate from cultural norms in their response, could help reduce this bias and encourage more honest answers.

Another limitation of this study is the generalizability of the findings. The sample was drawn from a specific geographic and cultural context, which may limit generalizability to Latinx populations in other regions or with different immigration histories. Future research should collect samples from a diverse range of geographical regions in order to encapsulate the responses of varied Latinx cultural perspectives. This would provide a broader view of the effects of the relationships explored in this study, in addition to how protective factors may change based on cultural emphasis. The sample was also limited in generalizability by the gender distribution, with the majority of participants being women. Results may differ for men, as previous work has shown that familism and respect are shaped by gendered expectations, with men often experiencing more autonomy and fewer family responsibilities (Ovink, 2014). These differences may shift how these values relate to the outcomes in this study. Acculturation was not directly measured in this study, and future research should examine how acculturation may interact with familism and respect. Additionally, data was collected in English only, which may have influenced how participants interpreted survey items and cultural values.

Conclusions

These findings highlight the need to further explore the buffering effects of respect in diverse mental health contexts. It also calls attention to the limitations of familism as a moderator for Latinx individuals. Our results suggest that there needs to be a more nuanced approach to how we study Latinx individuals in relation to their Mexican American values and their influence over different mental health outcomes. Furthermore, the distinction between familism and respect suggests that mental health interventions for Latinx college students should account for differences in cultural values in order to enhance the intervention’s effectiveness.

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Jordan N. Bentz

Mercedes Peña

Caroline Homan

Matthew J. Zawadzki

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Jordan N. Bentz, MS, is a doctoral student in Developmental Science in the Department of Human Development and Family Science at North Dakota State University. Her research examines how social contexts influence socio-emotional development and mental health in adolescence and emerging adulthood, with a focus on minoritized populations, including Latinx communities and individuals with disabilities.

Carmen Kho, PhD, is an assistant professor at North Dakota State University in the Department of Human Development and Family Science. Her research applies a cultural-ecological framework to examine how cultural, family, and contextual influences shape the socio-emotional development of children, adolescents, and emerging adults across multiple developmental contexts and timescales.

Mercedes Peña, MA, is a doctoral student in the Health Psychology area of the Department of Psychological Sciences at the University of California, Merced. She received her Master of Arts in Psychology at UC Merced. Her research focuses on stress and mental health, stress management techniques, and the use of digital health tools with consideration of potentially influential individual- and contextual-level factors.

Caroline Homan, PhD, is a developmental scientist, licensed mental health provider, and consultant who partners with organizations to support healthy relationships and human flourishing. Her research examines how social and environmental contexts shape psychological processes, including judgment worry, stress, and well-being across adolescence, emerging adulthood, and adult agricultural populations.

Matthew J. Zawadzki, PhD, is an associate professor of Psychological Sciences at the University of California, Merced, and director of the Stress and Health Lab. His research examines how everyday stress processes, including loneliness, negative interpersonal experiences, and perseverative cognitions, shape mental and physical health using intensive longitudinal and biobehavioral methods.

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