“We don’t believe in [the] Coronavirus;we believe in Allah. Whatever happens,it happens from Allah”: Pakistani media’s response to countering conspiracy theories during the COVID-19 pandemic

Abstract

This study examines the coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic by the four leading newspapers of Pakistan—Dawn, The News, Daily Times and The Nation—when they were responsible for informing and educating the public during a health crisis hit by conspiracy theories. The researchers utilized content analysis to analyze 1,124 news stories. The findings reveal less emphasis was placed on scientifically investigating the causes, precautions and care of coronavirus and dispelling public misconceptions.

Keywords

COVID-19 conspiracy theories priming Pakistani media The News Dawn Daily Times The Nation

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Ahmad

A. R.

Murad

H. R.

(2020). The impact of social media on panic during the COVID-19 pandemic in Iraqi Kurdistan: Online questionnaire study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(5), Article e19556.

Alvi

Mehmood

M. A.

Rasool

(2016). A multidimensional analysis of Pakistani press editorials. The Dialogue, XI(3), 270–284.

Anderson

B. R.

(1983). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. Verso.

Benkler

Faris

Roberts

(2018). Network propaganda: Manipulation, disinformation, and radicalization in American politics. Oxford University Press.

Berger

A. A.

(2000). Media and communication research methods. Sage Publications.

Braddock

Dillard

J. P.

(2016). Meta-analytic evidence for the persuasive effect of narratives on beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behaviors. Communication Monographs, 83(4), 446–467. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2015.1128555

British Broadcasting Corporation. (2023). Pakistan media guide. BBC News.

Cassam

(2023). Conspiracy theories. Society, 60, 190–199. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12115-023-00816-1

Chandana

M. A.

Dossa

(2021). Trust deficit in governance related to COVID-19 risk communication in Pakistan (Vol. 2). Tezhib.

10.

Chang

(2022). Seeking scientific health information for empowerment: Empowered-get-more-empowered effects. Science Communication, 44(2), 169–199.

11.

Chen

Min

Zhang

Wang

Evans

(2020). Unpacking the black box: How to promote citizen engagement through government social media during the COVID-19 crisis. Computers in Human Behavior, 110, Article 106380.

12.

Cottle

(2006). Mediatized conflict. Open University Press.

13.

Dacombe

Souter

Westerlund

(2021). Research note: Understanding offline Covid-19 conspiracy theories: A content analysis of the light “truthpaper.” Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 2(5), 1–11.

14.

Daily Times. (2020, March 18). Mosques remain open despite virus threats; Congregational prayers limited.

15.

Dawn. (2020). Egyp’s Al-Azhar issues fatwa permitting Juma prayers’ suspension in Pakistan. https://www.dawn.com/news/1543801

16.

Deane

(2015). Media and communication in governance it’s time for a rethink. In Whaites

Gonzalez

Fyson

Teskey

(Eds.), A governance practitioner’s notebook: Alternative ideas and approaches (pp. 265–280). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

17.

Denecke

Atique

(2016). Social media and health crisis communication during epidemics. In Syed-Abdul

Gabarron

Lau

(Eds.), Participatory health through social media (pp. 42–66). Academic Press.

18.

Douglas

K. M.

(2021). COVID-19 conspiracy theories. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 24(2), 270–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220982068

19.

Douglas

K. M.

Sutton

R. M.

Cichocka

(2017). The psychology of conspiracy theories. Psychological Science, 26(6), 538–542. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0963721417718261

20.

Douglas

K. M.

Uscinki

J. E.

Sutton

R. M.

Cichocka

Nefes

Siang

Deravi

A. F.

(2019). Understanding conspiracy theories. Political Psychology, 40(1), 3–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12568

21.

Gallup. (2020). Coronavirus attitude tracker survey in Pakistan. https://www.gallup.com.pk/post/30779

22.

Ghassab

Farashbandi

(2015). The role of media in crisis management: A case study of Azarbayejan earthquake. International Journal of Health System and Disaster Management, 3(2), 95–102. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312160918

23.

Habermas

Lennox

(1974). The public sphere: An encyclopedia Article (1964). New German Critique, 3, 49–55. https://doi.org/10.2307/487737

24.

Habib

Abbas

(2021). Facing the threat of COVID-19 in Pakistan: A nation’s dilemma. Value in Health Regional Issues, 24, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vhri.2020.10.005

25.

Hall

Critcher

Jefferson

Clarke

Roberts

(1978). Policing the crisis. Macmillan.

26.

Hansen

Cottle

Negrine

Newbold

(1998). Mass communication research methods (1st ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.

27.

Hilton

Hunt

(2010). UK newspapers’ representations of the 2009–10 outbreak of swine flu: One health scare not over-hyped by the media? J Epidemiol Community Health, 65(10), 941–946.

28.

Holsti

O. R.

(1969). Content analysis for the social sciences and humanities. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

29.

Islam

M. S.

Kamal

A. M.

Kabir

Southern

D. L.

Khan

S. H.

Hasan

S. M. M.

Sarkar

Sharmin

Das

Roy

Harun

M. G. D.

Chughtai

A. A.

Homaira

Seale

(2021). COVID-19 vaccine rumors and conspiracy theories: The need for cognitive inoculation against misinformation to improve vaccine adherence. PLOS ONE, 16(5), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251605.

30.

Ittefaq

Hussain

S. A.

Fatima

(2020). COVID-19 and social-politics of medical misinformation on social media in Pakistan. Media Asia, 47(1–2), 75–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/01296612.2020.1817264

31.

Iyengar

Kinder

D. R.

(1987). News that matters: Television and American opinion. University of Chicago Press.

32.

Karan

Aileen

Leng Elaine

(2007). Emerging victorious against an outbreak. Journal of Creative Communications, 2(3), 383–403.

33.

Khalid

Ali

(2020). COVID-19 and its challenges for the healthcare system in Pakistan. Asian Bioethics Review, 12(4), 551–564. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41649-020-00139-x

34.

Khan

Y. H.

Mallhi

T. H.

Alotaibi

N. H.

Alzarea

A. I.

Alanazi

A. S.

Tanveer

Hashmi

F. K.

(2020). Threat of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in Pakistan: The need for measures to neutralize misleading narratives. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 103(2), 603–604. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.20-0654

35.

Kim

Liu

B. F.

(2012). Are all crises opportunities? A comparison of how corporate and government organizations responded to the 2009 flu pandemic. Journal of Public Relations Research, 24(1), 69–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/1062726X.2012.626136

36.

Krippendorff

(2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology (2nd ed.). Sage.

37.

(2005). Media, crisis, and SARS: An introduction. Asian Journal of Communication, 15(3), 241–246. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01292980500260656

38.

Mach

K. J.

Salas Reyes

Pentz

Taylor

Costa

C. A.

Cruz

S. G.

Thomas

K. E.

Arnott

J. C.

Donald

Jagannathan

Kirchhoff

C. J.

Rosella

L. C.

Klenk

(2021). News media coverage of COVID-19 public health and policy information. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 8(220), 1–11.

39.

Mahl

Schäfer

M. S.

Zeng

(2023). Conspiracy theories in online environments: An interdisciplinary literature review and agenda for future research. New Media & Society, 25(7), 1781–1801. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221075759

40.

Marwan

A. H

. (2015). One death, three regions and two stories: A study of the media coverage of the killing of Osama bin Laden in Pakistani, British and American media. PhD Thesis, University of Sheffield, UK.

41.

Marwan

A. H.

Naz

. (2024). Representation of the fall of Kabul in Pakistani and Afghan media. Media, War & Conflict, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/17506352241237926

42.

MediaBuzz. (2020). Pakistan English newspapers and Pakistan English newspaper list. https://www.mediabuzz.org/newspapers/pakistan-english/

43.

Mintrom

O’Connor

(2020). The importance of policy narrative: Effective government responses to Covid-19. Policy Design and Practice, 3(3), 205–227.

44.

Nan

Dahlstrom

M. F.

Richards

Rangarajan

(2015). Influence of evidence type and narrative type on HPV risk perception and intention to obtain the HPV vaccine. Health Communication, 30(3), 301–308. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2014.888629

45.

Nan

Futerfas

(2017). Role of narrative perspective and modality in the persuasiveness of public service announcements promoting HPV vaccination. Health Communication, 32(3), 320–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2016.1138379

46.

Naz

Marwan

A. H.

Anwar

. (2022). Elite official sources and the coverage of the first wave of COVID-19 pandemic: A case study of Dawn and The News. Global Sociological Review, VII (I), 72–81. https://doi.org/10.31703/gsr.2022(VII-I).08

47.

Neubaum

Krämer

N. C.

(2015). Let’s blog about health! Exploring the persuasiveness of a personal HIV blog compared to an institutional HIV website. Health Communication, 30(9), 872–883.

48.

Noor

(2020). A state to trust. Dawn.

49.

Pintak

Nazir

S. J.

(2013). Pakistani journalism: At the crossroads of Muslim identity, national priorities and journalistic culture. Media, Culture & Society, 35(5), 640–665.

50.

Price

Tewksbury

Powers

(1997). Switching trains of thought: The impact of news frames on readers’ cognitive responses. Communication Research, 24, 481–506.

51.

Pummerer

Bohm

Lilleholt

Winter

Zettler

Sassenberg

(2021). Conspiracy theories and their societal effects during the COVID-19 pandemic. Social Psychology and Personality Science, 13(1), 49–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506211000217

52.

Raboy

Dagenais

(Eds.) (1992). Media, crises and democracy: Mass communication and the disruption of social order. Sage.

53.

Rehman

Schmall

(2020). A Covid-19 surge and conspiracy theories roil Pakistan. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/19/world/asia/pakistan-coronavirus.html

54.

Ridlo

I. A.

(2021). The challenge of health crisis journalism during COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia. Medium.

55.

Romer

Jamieson

K. H.

(2020). Conspiracy theories as barriers to controlling the spread of COVID-19 in the U.S. Social Science & Medicine, 263, 113356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113356

56.

Sawant

B. P.

(2011). Role of media in crises situations. Mainstream, XLIX, 1–4. https://www.mainstreamweekly.net/article3113.html

57.

Scheufele

D. A.

Tewksbury

(2007). Framing, agenda setting, and priming: The evolution of three media effects models. Journal of Communication, 57(1), 9–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0021-9916.2007.00326.x

58.

Schwarz

(2022). Mediating a global health crisis: Challenges for journalists in Germany during the COVID-19 pandemic [Master’s Thesis, Stockholm University].

59.

Shaikh

(2020). COVID-19: Pakistan’s preparations and response. International Growth Centre (IGC).

60.

Sharma

H. B.

Vanapalli

K. R.

Cheela

V. S.

Ranjan

V. P.

Jaglan

A. K.

Dubey

Goel

Bhattacharya

(2020). Challenges, opportunities, and innovations for effective solid waste management during and post COVID-19 pandemic. Resources, Conservation, and Recycling, 162, 105052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105052

61.

Shen

Sheer

V. C.

(2015). Impact of narratives on persuasion in health. Communication: A meta-analysis. Journal of Advertising, 44(2), 105–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2015.1018467

62.

Thomas

(2020). What should health science journalists do in epidemic responses? AMA Journal of Ethics, 22(1), 155–160.

63.

Wahl-Jorgensen

Hanitzsch

(2009) . Introduction: On why and how we should do journalism studies. In Wahl-Jorgensen

Hanitzsch

(Eds.), The handbook of journalism studies (pp. 3–16). Routledge.

64.

Weaver

D. H.

(2007). Thoughts on agenda setting, framing, and priming. Journal of Communication, 57(1), 142–114. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00333.x

65.

World Health Organization. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 on people’s livelihoods, their health and our food systems. https://www.who.int/news/item/13-10-2020-impact-of-covid-19-on-people’s-livelihoods-their-health-and-our-food-systems

66.

Xiao

Borah

(2021). The dangers of blind trust: Examining the interplay among social media news use, misinformation identification, and news trust on conspiracy beliefs. Public Understanding of Science, 30(8), 977–992. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662521998025

67.

Zebregs

van den Putte

Neijens

de Graaf

(2015). The differential impacts of statistical and narrative evidence on beliefs, attitude, and intention: A meta-analysis. Health Communication, 30(3), 282–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2013.842528

68.

Zeng

(2023). Content analysis in the research field of conspiracy theories in the digital media environment. In Oehmer-Pedrazzi

Kessler

S. H.

Humprecht

Sommer

Castro

(Eds.), Standardisierte Inhaltsanalyse in der Kommunikationswissenschaft—Standardized content analysis in communication research (pp 463–469). Wiesbaden.

69.

Zelizer

(2005). Definitions of journalism. In Overholser

Jamieson

K. H.

(Eds.), Institutions of American Democracy: The Press (pp. 66–80). Oxford University Press.