Community-based organizations (CBOs) and nonprofits are essential to disaster recovery, particularly for marginalized populations like public housing residents. They provide direct services and advocacy, filling gaps when governmental assistance is delayed. However, their capacity is often stretched, especially during compounding disasters. This paper examines the role of CBOs in public housing recovery following the 2020 Southwest earthquakes and COVID-19 in Ponce, Puerto Rico. It explores the challenges CBOs face and how to enhance their effectiveness. Using archival research and interviews, the study highlights how collaboration among CBOs and nonprofits can improve public housing recovery efforts and inform strategies for better engagement.
AlexanderDavid E.2015. Disaster and Emergency Planning for Preparedness, Response, and Recovery. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2.
ArenaJohn. 2012. Driven from New Orleans: How Nonprofits Betray Public Housing and Promote Privatization. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
3.
BaumAndrewGarofaloJohn P.YaliAnn M.1999. “Socioeconomic Status and Chronic Stress: Does Stress Account for SES Effects on Health?” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences896 (1): 131–44.
4.
BeebeejaunYasminahMcClymontKatieMaddrellAvrilMathijssenBrendaMcNallyDanny. 2024. “Death in the Peripheries: Planning for Minority Ethnic Groups beyond ‘the City.’” Journal of Planning Education and Research44 (3): 1198–211.
5.
BolinRobertStanfordLois. 1998. “The Northridge Earthquake: Community-Based Approaches to Unmet Recovery Needs.” Disasters22 (1): 21–38.
6.
BoraineAlex. 2014. “The Role of Civil Society in a Failing State.” In What’s Gone Wrong? South Africa on the Brink of Failed Statehood, edited by BoraineAlex, 108–26. New York: New York University Press.
7.
Borges-MendezRamon. 2020. “Community Development Corporations and Reconstruction Policy in Puerto Rico.” Centro Journal32 (3): 157.
8.
BrattRachel G.2012. “The Quadruple Bottom Line and Nonprofit Housing Organizations in the United States.” Housing Studies27 (4): 438–56.
CarterWilliam H.SchillMichael H.WachterSusan M.1998. “Polarisation, Public Housing and Racial Minorities in US Cities.” Urban Studies35 (10): 1889–911.
11.
ChandrasekharDivyaGarcíaIvisKhajeheiSayma. 2022. “Recovery Capacity of Small Nonprofits in Post-2017 Hurricane Puerto Rico.” Journal of the American Planning Association88 (2): 206–19.
CutterSusan L.2018. “Compound, Cascading, or Complex Disasters: What’s in a Name?” Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development60 (6): 16–25.
17.
CutterSusan L.BoruffBryanShirleyW. Lynn. 2003. “Social Vulnerability to Environmental Hazards.” Social Science Quarterly84 (2): 242–61.
18.
DemirozFatihHuQian. 2014. “The Role of Nonprofits and Civil Society in Post-disaster Recovery and Development.” In Disaster and Development: Examining Global Issues and Cases, edited by KapucuNaimLiouKuotsai Tom, 317–30. Cham: Springer.
Donnelly-CoxGemmaMeyerMichaelWijkströmFilip. 2020. “Nonprofit Governance.” In Advances in Corporate Governance: Comparative Perspectives, edited by AnheierHelmut K.BaumsTheodor, 142–79. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
21.
DreierPeterHulchanskiJ. David. 1993. “The Role of Nonprofit Housing in Canada and the United States: Some Comparisons.” Housing Policy Debate4 (1): 43–80.
22.
DrennanLynnMorrisseyLochlan. 2019. “Resilience Policy in Practice—Surveying the Role of Community-Based Organisations in Local Disaster Management.” Local Government Studies45 (3): 328–49.
23.
DynesRussell R.1970. Organized Behavior in Disaster. Lexington: Heath Lexington Books.
24.
Gould EllenIngridVoicuIoan. 2006. “Nonprofit Housing and Neighborhood Spillovers.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management25 (1): 31–52.
25.
EllerWarren S.GerberBrian J.RobinsonScott E.2018. “Nonprofit Organizations and Community Disaster Recovery: Assessing the Value and Impact of Intersector Collaboration.” Natural Hazards Review19 (1): 05017007.
FertigAngela R.ReingoldDavid A.2007. “Public Housing, Health, and Health Behaviors: Is There a Connection?” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management26 (4): 831–59.
29.
FinchChristinaEmrichChristopher T.CutterSusan L.2010. “Disaster Disparities and Differential Recovery in New Orleans.” Population and Environment31 (4): 179–202.
30.
FischbachJordanMayLinnea WarrenWhipkeyKatieSheltonShoshana R.VaughanChristine AnneTierneyDevinLeuschnerKristinMeredithLisa S.PetersonHilary J.2020. After Hurricane Maria: Predisaster Conditions, Hurricane Damage, and Recovery Needs in Puerto Rico. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. doi:10.7249/RR2595.
31.
FothergillAlicePeekLori. 2015. Children of Katrina. Austin: University of Texas Press.
32.
GalloLinda C.MatthewsKaren A.2003. “Understanding the Association between Socioeconomic Status and Physical Health: Do Negative Emotions Play a Role?” Psychological Bulletin129 (1): 10–51.
33.
GarciaIvisChandrasekharDivya. 2020. “Impact of Hurricane María to the civic sector: A profile of non-profits in Puerto Rico.” Centro Journal32 (3): 67–88.
GrahamLeigh. 2012. “Razing Lafitte: Defending Public Housing from a Hostile State.” Journal of the American Planning Association78 (4): 466–80.
37.
GrahamLeigh. 2020. “Public Housing Participation in Superstorm Sandy Recovery: Living in a Differentiated State in Rockaway, Queens.” Urban Affairs Review56 (1): 289–324.
38.
GraneheimUlla H.LindgrenBritt-MarieLundmanBerit. 2017. “Methodological Challenges in Qualitative Content Analysis: A Discussion Paper.” Nurse Education Today56:29–34.
39.
HamidehSaraRongerudeJane. 2018. “Social Vulnerability and Participation in Disaster Recovery Decisions: Public Housing in Galveston after Hurricane Ike.” Natural Hazards93 (3): 1629–48.
JohnsonLaurie A.OlshanskyRobert B.2017. After Great Disasters: An In-depth Analysis of How Six Countries Managed Community Recovery. Cambridge: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.
47.
JonIhnji. 2020. “A Manifesto for Planning after the Coronavirus: Towards Planning of Care.” Planning Theory19 (3): 329–45.
48.
KamelNabil M. O.Loukaitou-SiderisAnastasia. 2004. “Residential Assistance and Recovery Following the Northridge Earthquake.” Urban Studies41 (3): 533–62.
49.
KapucuNaimYuldashevFarhodFeldheimMary Ann. 2018. “Nonprofit Organizations in Disaster Response and Management: A Network Analysis.” Journal of Economics and Financial Analysis2 (1): 69–98.
50.
KhajeheiSaymaHamidehSara. 2023. “Post-Disaster Recovery Challenges of Public Housing Residents: Lumberton, North Carolina after Hurricane Matthew.” Urban Affairs Review60 (1): 232–71.
51.
Lamba-NievesDeepakSantiago-BartolomeiRaúl. 2023. “Who Gets Emergency Housing Relief? An Analysis of FEMA Individual Assistance Data after Hurricane María.” Housing Policy Debate33 (5): 1146–66.
52.
LeppoldClaireMorriceHannahBradyKateReifelsLennartAbeysingheSudeepaQuinnPhoebeGibbsLisa. 2025. “Recovery Work in Cascading and Compounding Disasters: A Qualitative Study of Community Recovery Workers in Australia.” International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction116:105152.
53.
LevineJoyce N.EsnardAnn-MargaretSapatAlka. 2007. “Population Displacement and Housing Dilemmas due to Catastrophic Disasters.” Journal of Planning Literature22 (1): 3–15.
54.
LincolnYvonna S.GubaEgon G.1985. Naturalistic Inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
55.
LylesWardBerkePhilipSmithGavin. 2016. “Local Plan Implementation: Assessing Conformance and Influence of Local Plans in the United States.” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design43 (2): 381–400.
56.
MadridPaula A.GrantRoy. 2008. “Meeting Mental Health Needs Following a Natural Disaster: Lessons from Hurricane Katrina.” Professional Psychology: Research and Practice39 (1): 86–92.
57.
MathiasJohnBurnsDesirée D.PiekalkiewiczEllenChoiJuyeongFelicianoGiselle. 2022. “Roles of Nonprofits in Disaster Response and Recovery: Adaptations to Shifting Disaster Patterns in the Context of Climate Change.” Natural Hazards Review23 (3): 04022011.
58.
McCartyMaggie. 2014. Introduction to Public Housing. CRS Report for Congress No. R41654. Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress. https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/R41654.pdf.
59.
MelendezEdwin. 2020. “Post-Disaster Recovery in Puerto Rico and Local Participation: Introduction.” Centro Journal32 (3): 4–38.
60.
MeyerMichelle AnnetteAlexander-HawkMasonPurdumJ. CarleeYelleHaleyVickJordanRodriguezAdrianRomeroSaulTaylorKenneth Anderson. 2023. “Resilience in Recovery? Understanding the Extent, Structure, and Operations of Nonprofits Meant to Address Disaster Survivors’ Unmet Needs.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly52 (4): 979–1005.
61.
MlcekSusanIsmayDennis. 2015. “Balanced Management in the Delivery of Community Services through Information and Neighbourhood Centres.” Third Sector Review21 (1): 31–50.
62.
OlshanskyRobert B.HopkinsLewis D.JohnsonLaurie A.2012. “Disaster and Recovery: Processes Compressed in Time.” Natural Hazards Review13 (3): 173–78.
63.
PeacockWalter G.Van ZandtShannonZhangYangHighfieldWesley E.2014. “Inequities in Long-Term Housing Recovery after Disasters.” Journal of the American Planning Association80 (4): 356–71.
64.
PescaroliGianlucaAlexanderDavid. 2015. “A Definition of Cascading Disasters and Cascading Effects: Going beyond the ‘Toppling Dominos’ Metaphor.” Planet@risk3 (1): 58–67.
PowerEmma R.WilliamsMiriam J.2020. “Cities of Care: A Platform for Urban Geographical Care Research.” Geography Compass14 (1): e12474.
67.
RiveraJason DavidNickelsAshley E.2014. “Social Capital, Community Resilience, and Faith-Based Organizations in Disaster Recovery: A Case Study of Mary Queen of Vietnam Catholic Church.” Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Policy5 (2): 178–211.
68.
Rodríguez-DíazCarlos E.2018. “Maria in Puerto Rico: Natural Disaster in a Colonial Archipelago.” American Journal of Public Health108 (1): 30–32.
69.
RoqueDelilahAnaisDavid PijawkaWutichAmber. 2020. “The Role of Social Capital in Resiliency: Disaster Recovery in Puerto Rico.” Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Policy11 (2): 204–35.
SaadianSarahPattonNoahGordonAdamRammlerDavid. 2020. Fixing America’s Broken Disaster Housing Recovery System, Part Two: Policy Framework Reform Recommendations. Washington, DC: Disaster Housing Recovery Coalition of the National Low Income Housing Coalition.
72.
SaldañaJohnny. 2021. The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers. 4th ed.London: Sage Publication Ltd.
73.
Sanabria-LeónWaleskaHenriciJaneTorresM. GabrielaCardonaAlitzaFairbairnAnnaEatonElizabeth. 2021. Cascading Disasters, Gender, and Vulnerability in Southwestern Puerto Rico. Natural Hazards Center Public Health Disaster Research Report Series, Report 13. Boulder: Natural Hazards Center, University of Colorado Boulder.
ShawMary. 2004. “Housing and Public Health.” Annual Review of Public Health25:397–418.
76.
SimoGloriaBiesAngela L.2007. “The Role of Nonprofits in Disaster Response: An Expanded Model of Cross-Sector Collaboration.” Public Administration Review67 (s1): 125–42.
77.
SmithGavinThomasBirkland. 2012. “Building a Theory of Recovery: Institutional Dimensions.”International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters30: 147–70.
78.
StysJeffrey J.2011. Non-Profit Involvement in Disaster Response and Recovery. Chapel Hill: Center for Law, Environment, Adaptation and Resources, The University of North Carolina School of Law.
79.
SylvesRichard T.2015. Disaster Policy and Politics: Emergency Management and Homeland Security. 2nd ed.Thousand Oaks: CQ Press.
80.
TalenEmilyKoschinskyJulia. 2014. “The Neighborhood Quality of Subsidized Housing.” Journal of the American Planning Association80 (1): 67–82.
81.
TateEric. 2012. “Social Vulnerability Indices: A Comparative Assessment Using Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis.” Natural Hazards63 (2): 325–47.
82.
TierneyKathleen. 2012. “Disaster Governance: Social, Political, and Economic Dimensions.” Annual Review of Environment and Resources37:341–63.
83.
TierneyKathleen. 2013. “Only Connect! Social Capital, Resilience, and Recovery.” Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Policy4 (1): 1–5.
84.
ToppingKenneth C.SchawbJ. C.2014. “The Federal Framework for Disaster Recovery.” In Planning for Post-Disaster Recovery: Next Generation, edited by James CSchwab, 60–71. Chicago, IL: American Planning Association.
Van ZandtShannonPeacockWalter G.HenryDustin W.GroverHimanshuHighfieldWesley E.BrodySamuel D.2012. “Mapping Social Vulnerability to Enhance Housing and Neighborhood Resilience.” Housing Policy Debate22 (1): 29–55.
89.
VlahovDavidGaleaSandro. 2002. “Urbanization, Urbanicity, and Health.” Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine79 (4, Suppl. 1): S1–S12.
90.
WhittemoreRobinChaseSusan K.MandleCarol Lynn. 2001. “Validity in qualitative research.” Qualitative Health Research11 (4): 522–37.
91.
ZscheischlerJakobWestraSethVan Den HurkBart J. J. M.SeneviratneSonia I.WardPhilip J.PitmanAndyAghaKouchakAmir, et al. 2018. “Future Climate Risk from Compound Events.” Nature Climate Change8 (6): 469–77.
