Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Legacy city plans prescribe reusing vacant residential land for green uses that improve quality of life and strengthen neighborhoods. To reduce combined sewer overflows, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency required green stormwater infrastructure (GSI), a possible reuse of vacant land consistent with those plans. Case studies of two cities, based on interviews, meetings, and government documents, revealed that GSI rarely reused vacant land because goals of mayors, sewer agencies, and neighborhood advocates were incompatible; reforms to facilitate GSI emphasized development sites; and no measures protected GSI from destruction. Nonprofit organizations will likely lead efforts to install GSI on vacant residential land at smaller scale.

Keywords

green infrastructure land use legacy city neighborhood development vacant land

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Albro

Sandra L.

2019. Vacant to Vibrant. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Atassi

Leila

. 2014. “Jackson Sounds Off on Police, Potholes, Wahoo.” The Plain Dealer, March 6. NewsBank, Inc.

Atassi

Leila

Tobias

Andrew J.

2014. “District Bets on Proven System Over Green Technology.” The Plain Dealer, February 23. NewsBank, Inc.

Beauregard

Robert

. 2009. “Urban Population Loss in Historical Perspective.” Environment and Planning A 41 (3): 514–28.

Beauregard

Robert

. 2012. “Growth and Depopulation in the United States.” In Rebuilding America’s Legacy Cities, edited by Mallach

Alan

, 1–24. New York: The American Assembly.

Bomey

Nathan

. 2017. Detroit Resurrected. New York: W.W. Norton.

Bonham

J. Blaine

Spilka

Gerri

Rastorfer

Darl

. 2002. Old Cities/Green Cities. PAS Report 506/507. Chicago, IL: American Planning Association.

Bright

Elise M.

2003. Reviving America’s Forgotten Neighborhoods. New York: Routledge.

Brown

Rebekah R.

2005. “Impediments to Integrated Urban Stormwater Management.” Environmental Management 36 (3): 455–68.

10.

Brown

Rebekah R.

Farrelly

Megan A.

2009. “Delivering Sustainable Urban Water Management.” Water Science and Technology 59 (3): 839–46.

11.

Brown

Rebekah R.

Farrelly

Megan A.

Loorbach

Derk A.

2013. “Actors Working the Institutions in Sustainability Transitions.” Global Environmental Change 23:701–18.

12.

Bucher

Anne

. 2017. City of Detroit Per-Acre Drainage Charges Class Action Settlement. “Top Class Actions Reporter.” November 3. https://topclassactions.com/lawsuit-settlements/closed-settlements/city-detroit-per-acre-drainage-charges-class-action-settlement/.

13.

Chaffin

Brian C.

Shuster

William D.

Garmestani

Ahjond S.

Furio

Brooke

Albro

Sandra L.

Gardiner

Mary

Spring

MaLisa

Green

Olivia Odom

. 2016. “A Tale of Two Rain Gardens: Barriers and Bridges to Adaptive Management of Urban Stormwater in Cleveland, Ohio.” Journal of Environmental Management 183:431–41.

14.

City of Flint. 2013. Imagine Flint: Master Plan for a Sustainable Flint. October 28. https://app.box.com/s/pmnylov9ysvcvjkwzp81qgla816hcast.

15.

City of Saginaw. 2011. Master Plan 2011. Saginaw, MI. https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/23164634/city-of-saginaw-master-plan-2011pdf-city-of-saginaw-mi.

16.

City of Youngstown. 2005. Youngstown 2010. Youngstown, OH. https://youngstownohio.gov/cped-planning.

17.

Cleveland City Planning Commission. 2011. 8 Ideas for Vacant Land Re-use in Cleveland. City of Cleveland, Cleveland. https://planning.clevelandohio.gov/ftp/8IdeasForVacantLandReuseCleveland.pdf.

18.

Cleveland Urban Design Collaborative. 2008. Re-Imagining a More Sustainable Cleveland. Adopted by the Cleveland City Planning Commission, December 19, Cleveland. https://www.dropbox.com/s/93ekamu8t10elhu/2008_Re-Imagining-A-More-Sustainable-Cleveland-Report.pdf?dl=0.

19.

Coppola

Alessandro

. 2019. “Projects of Becoming in a Right-Sizing Shrinking City.” Urban Geography 40 (2): 237–56.

20.

Data Driven Detroit. 2014. “Motor City Mapping Blexting Info Packet”. https://datadrivendetroit.org/files/DCPS/Blexting%20Info%20Packet%208.18.14.pdf.

21.

Detroit Collaborative Design Center. 2018. Bridging High and Low Density Neighborhoods with Green Stormwater Infrastructure. Detroit: Detroit Collaborative Design Center.

22.

Detroit Future City. 2016. Achieving an Integrated Open Space Network in Detroit. Detroit, February 17. https://detroitfuturecity.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Open-Space-Report-2016.pdf.

23.

Detroit Future City. 2019. A Detroit Property Owner’s Guide to Bioretention. Detroit, Summer. https://detroitfuturecity.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/GUIDE-Property-Owners-Guide-to-Bioretention-September-2019.pdf.

24.

Detroit Future City. N.d. “Working with Lots.” Detroit. https://detroitfuturecity.com/whatwedo/land-use/DFC-lots/.

25.

Detroit Land Bank Authority. 2014. “Minutes of the Board of Directors Meeting.” June 17. https://s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/dlba-production-bucket/Meetings/documents/01172018085903.pdf.

26.

Detroit Land Bank Authority. 2023. 2024 First Quarter Report. Detroit: Detroit Land Bank Authority.

27.

Detroit Land Bank Authority. N.d. “Temporary License (Green Infrastructure Research Project)” to “Permit Ingress, Egress, Installation, Maintenance, and Operation.”

28.

Detroit Post-Construction Stormwater Management Ordinance. 2020. “Ordinance No. 2020-43, Ch. 48, Art. II.” https://detroitmi.gov/sites/detroitmi.localhost/files/2020-12/Ordinance%20with%20Cover%20-%20Post-Construction%20Stormwater%20Management%20-%20Approved%20Revision%20November%202020.pdf.

29.

Detroit Water and Sewerage Department. 2011. “Alternative Rouge River CSO Control Program Executive Summary.” February. https://www.uni-groupusa.org/PDF/Detriot%20alternativerougeriverfeb2011.pdf.

30.

Detroit Water and Sewerage Department. 2014. “Green Infrastructure Plan for the Upper Rouge Tunnel Area.” August 1. https://detroitmi.gov/sites/detroitmi.localhost/files/2018-05/dwsd_gi_upper_rouge_tunnel_area_08-01-2014.pdf.

31.

Detroit Water and Sewerage Department. 2016a. “Detroit Water and Sewerage Drainage Charge Questions and Answers.” https://detroitmi.gov/Portals/0/docs/DWSD/FAQ%20-%20Drainage%20Charge%20and%20Credit%20Program%20-%2011232016.pdf.

32.

Detroit Water and Sewerage Department. 2016b. “Making Vacant Lots Work for Detroit.” https://detroitmi.gov/sites/detroitmi.localhost/files/2018-05/Making%20Vacant%20Lots%20Work%20for%20Detroit_technical%20fact%20sheet_2016update.pdf.

33.

Detroit Water and Sewerage Department. 2017. “Green Infrastructure Progress Report Upper Rouge Tributary Area: Fiscal Year July 1, 2016-June 30, 2017, NPDES Permit No. MI0022802.” August 1. https://detroitmi.gov/sites/detroitmi.localhost/files/2018-05/2017-09-25%20DWSD%20GI%20Annual%20Report%20FY%202017%20WEB%20VERSION.pdf.

34.

Detroit Water and Sewerage Department. 2018. “Green Infrastructure Progress Report Upper Rouge Tributary Area: July 1, 2017-June 30, 2018, NPDES Permit No. MI0022802.” April 1. https://detroitmi.gov/sites/detroitmi.localhost/files/2019-02/2018%20DWSD%20GSI%20Annual%20Report%2008-01-2018%20FINAL_WEB.PDF.

35.

Detroit Water and Sewerage Department. 2020a. “Green Infrastructure Progress Report Upper Rouge Tributary Area: July 1, 2018-March 1, 2020, NPDES Permit No. MI0022802.” April 1. https://detroitmi.gov/sites/detroitmi.localhost/files/2020-06/FY2019.FY2020%20DWSD%20GSI%20Annual%20Report%202020.04.01%20New%20Version%202020%2003%2031.pdf.

36.

Detroit Water and Sewerage Department. 2020b. Stormwater Management Design Manual. December. https://detroitmi.gov/sites/detroitmi.localhost/files/2021-01/PCSWMO%20Design%20Manual%20December%202020%20-%20Compressed.pdf.

37.

Detroit Water and Sewerage Department. 2021. “Green Infrastructure Progress Report Upper Rouge Tributary Area: March 1, 2020-February 1, 2021, NPDES Permit No. MI0022802.” April 1. https://detroitmi.gov/sites/detroitmi.localhost/files/2021-06/FINAL%20DWSD%20GSI%20Annual%20Report%20April%201%202021_Formatting%20edited.pdf.

38.

Detroit Water and Sewerage Department. 2022. “Green Stormwater Infrastructure Projects.” https://detroitmi.gov/departments/water-and-sewerage-department/dwsd-projects/green-stormwater-infrastructure-projects.

39.

Detroit Works Project Long-Term Planning Steering Committee. 2012. Detroit Future City: 2012 Detroit Strategic Framework Plan. Detroit. https://detroitfuturecity.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/DFC_Full_2nd.pdf.

40.

Dewar

Margaret

. 2006. “Selling Tax-reverted Land.” Journal of the American Planning Association 72 (2): 167–80.

41.

Dewar

Margaret

. 2013. “What Helps or Hinders Nonprofit Developers in Reusing Vacant, Abandoned, and Contaminated Property?” In The City After Abandonment, edited by Dewar

Margaret

Thomas

June Manning

, 174–96. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

42.

Dewar

Margaret

Cho

Grace

Labov

Rebecca

Egler

Moira

Alvarez

Alicia

. 2018. Making Governance Work for Green Stormwater Infrastructure on Vacant Land in Legacy Cities. NEW-GI Technical Report No. 2, September. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.

43.

Dewar

Margaret

Linn

Robert

. 2015. “Remaking Brightmoor.” In Mapping Detroit, edited by Thomas

June Manning

Bekkering

Henco

, 143–65. Detroit: Wayne State University Press.

44.

Dewar

Margaret

Thomas

June Manning

, eds. 2013. The City after Abandonment. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

45.

Dewar

Margaret

Weber

Matthew

. 2012. “City Abandonment.” In Oxford Handbook of Urban Planning, edited by Weber

Rachel

Crane

Randall

, 563–86. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

46.

Dhakal

Krishna P.

Chevalier

Lizette R.

2016. “Urban Stormwater Governance.” Environmental Management 57:1112–24.

47.

DiPasquale

Denise

Wheaton

William C.

1996. Urban Economics and Real Estate Markets. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

48.

DuBay

Kellie

. 2017. “How DWSD partnerships help green stormwater infrastructure (GSI) take root in Detroit.” Presentation at the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Green Infrastructure Conference, Detroit, May 31.

49.

Fitzgerald

Joan

Laufer

Joshua

. 2017. “Governing Green Stormwater Infrastructure.” Local Environment 22 (2): 256–68.

50.

Ganning

Joanna P.

Tighe

J. Rosie

. 2015. “Assessing the Feasibility of Side Yard Programs as a Solution to Land Vacancy in U.S. Shrinking Cities.” Urban Affairs Review 51 (5): 708–25.

51.

Gittell

Ross

. 1992. Renewing Cities. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

52.

Great Lakes Water Authority. 2018. “Wastewater Master Plan Green Stormwater Infrastructure Cost Estimates.” Draft Technical Memorandum. September.

53.

Harrington

Elise

Hsu

David

. 2018. “Roles for Government and Other Sectors in the Governance of Green Infrastructure in the U.S.” Environmental Science & Policy 88:104–15.

54.

Heckert

Megan

Rosan

Christina D.

2016. “Developing a Green Infrastructure Equity Index to Promote Equity Planning.” Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 19:263–70.

55.

Helms

Matt

. 2016. “State of the City: $490M Pension Deficit New Hurdle.” Detroit Free Press, February 24, p. A1. ProQuest.

56.

Helms

Matt

Guillen

Joe

. 2014. “The Change in Detroit is Real.” Detroit Free Press, February 27, p. A1. ProQuest.

57.

Hollander

Justin B.

Pallagst

Karina M.

Schwarz

Terry

Popper

Frank J.

2009. “Shaken, Shrinking, Hot, Impoverished and Informal.” Progress in Planning 72:223–32.

58.

Hopkins

Kristina G.

Grimm

Nancy B.

York

Abigail M.

2018. “Influence of Governance Structure on Green Stormwater Infrastructure Investment.” Environmental Science & Policy 84:124–33.

59.

Hsu

David

Lim

Theodore Chao

Meng

Ting

. 2020. “Rocky Steps towards Adaptive Management and Adaptive Governance in Implementing Green Infrastructure at Urban Scale in Philadelphia.” Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 55:126791.

60.

Hummel

Daniel

. 2014. “Right-sizing Cities in the United States.” Journal of Urban Affairs 37 (4): 397–409.

61.

Jackson

Frank G.

2014. “State of the City.” March 5.

62.

Jackson

Frank G.

2016. “Shaping a Greater Cleveland Together: Highlights from the State of the City Address.” March 10.

63.

Keating

W. Dennis

Krumholz

Norman

Star

Philip

, eds. 1996. Revitalizing Urban Neighborhoods. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.

64.

Keeley

Melissa

Koburger

Althea

Dolowitz

David P.

Medearis

Dale

Nickel

Darla

Shuster

William

. 2013. “Perspectives on the Use of Green Infrastructure for Stormwater Management in Cleveland and Milwaukee.” Environmental Management 51:1093–1108.

65.

LaFrambois

Megan E. Heim

Park

Yunli

Yurcaba

Daniel

. 2023. “How U.S. Shrinking Cities Plan for Change.” Journal of Planning Education and Research 43 (1): 81–93.

66.

Lanks

Belinda

. 2006. “Creative Shrinkage.” The New York Times, December 6. https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/10/magazine/creative-shrinkage.html.

67.

Lewinski

Danielle

Settlemyer

Laura

Heins

Payton

Toering

Sara

Shapiro

Tamar

. 2015. Open Space in Detroit. Washington, DC: Center for Community Progress, October. https://communityprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/2015-10-Open-Space-in-Detroit-TASP-Report.pdf.

68.

Livengood

Chad.

2017. “Detroit Scales Back Drain Fees after Outcry from Businesses, Churches.” Crain’s Detroit Business, April 18, p. 3. EBSCOhost.

69.

Madden

Sarah

. 2010. “Choosing Green over Gray.” Master’s thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA.

70.

Mallach

Alan

, ed. 2012. Rebuilding America’s Legacy Cities. New York: The American Assembly.

71.

Mandarano

Lynn

. 2011. “Clean Waters, Clean City.” In Sustainability in America’s Cities, edited by Slavin

Matthew I.

, 157–79. Washington, DC: Island Press.

72.

Mayer

Neil

Keyes

Langley

. 2005. City Government’s Role in the Community Development System. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.

73.

Michigan Courts. 2018. “Case Search: Binns v. City of Detroit.” November 6. https://www.courts.michigan.gov/490912/siteassets/case-documents/uploads/opinions/final/coa/20181106_c337609(59)_337609.opn.pdf.

74.

Michigan Department of Environment, Great Lakes, and Energy. 2019. “National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System, Permit No. MI0022802, Issued June 28.” https://jeffersonchalmerswaterproject.org/343_m_NPDES%20Permit%20-%20FINAL-GLWA%20WRRF.pdf.

75.

Mobley

Palencia

. 2017a. “Detroit: Silos to Bridges.” Presentation, Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Green Infrastructure Conference, Detroit, May 31.

76.

Mobley

Palencia

. 2017b. “Rain Drops and Reinvention.” Keynote Address, Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Green Infrastructure Conference, Detroit, May 31.

77.

Morckel

Victoria

. 2020. “Flint (MI) Missed an Opportunity to ‘Right Size’ with its Water Crisis.” Journal of the American Planning Association 86 (3): 304–10.

78.

Nassauer

Joan Iverson

Sampson

Natalie R.

Webster

Noah J.

Dewar

Margaret

McElmurry

Shawn

Burton

G. Allen

Jr Riseng

Catherine

. 2019. Green Stormwater Infrastructure on Vacant Land. NEW-GI White Paper No. 3. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Water Center.

79.

Nature Conservancy. 2025. “Conservation in Detroit—Eastern Market Partnership.” https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/unitedstates/michigan/stories-in-michigan/conservatuib-in-detroit/.

80.

Németh

Jeremy

Hollander

Justin B.

Whiteman

Eliza D.

Johnson

Michael P.

2020. “Planning with Justice in Mind in a Shrinking Baltimore.” Journal of Urban Affairs 42 (3): 351–70.

81.

Newell

Joshua P.

Foster

Alec

Borgman

Mariel

Meerow

Sara

. 2022. “Ecosystem Services of Urban Agriculture and Prospects for Scaling Up Production.” Cities 125:103664.

82.

Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District. 2012. “Green Infrastructure Plan Project Clean Lake.” Cleveland, April 23. https://www.neorsd.org/library/44_42_GI_plan_021012.pdf.

83.

Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District. 2014. “News: Green Commitment in Cleveland’s Public Square Renovation Improves Drainage, Manages Stormwater.” October 2. http://neorsd.blogspot.com/2014/10/news-sewer-district-commits-3-million.html.

84.

Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District. 2015. “Appendix 3 Green Infrastructure Anticipated Co-Benefits Analysis.” Final Report, October 7. https://www.neorsd.org/I_Library.php?SOURCE=library/Co-Benefits_Report_FINAL_032715.pdf&a=download_file&LIBRARY_RECORD_ID=6519.

85.

Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District. 2017. “Green Infrastructure Policy.” Handout at Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Green Infrastructure Conference, Detroit, May 31.

86.

Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District. 2018. “About Us.” https://www.neorsd.org/about/.

87.

Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District v. Bath Twp. 2015. 144 Ohio St.3d 387, 2015-Ohio-3705. https://www.supremecourt.ohio.gov/rod/docs/pdf/0/2015/2015-ohio-3705.pdf.

88.

Nusser

Susan

. 2015. “The MMSD Story from Gray to Green.” Urban Milwaukee, May 21. https://urbanmilwaukee.com/2015/05/21/the-mmsd-story-from-gray-to-green/.

89.

Peiser

Richard B.

Hamilton

David

. 2012. Professional Real Estate Development. Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute.

90.

Pothukuchi

Kameshwari

. 2017. “To Allow Farming is to Give up on the City.” Journal of Urban Affairs 39 (8): 1169–89.

91.

Pothukuchi

Kameshwari

. 2018. “Vacant Land Disposition for Agriculture in Cleveland, Ohio.” Journal of Urban Affairs 40 (5): 657–78.

92.

Qiao

Xiu-Juan

Kristoffersson

Anders

Randrup

Thomas B.

2018. “Challenges to Implementing Urban Sustainable Stormwater Management from a Governance Perspective.” Journal of Cleaner Production 196:943–52.

93.

Rhodes

James

Russo

John

. 2013. “Shrinking ‘Smart’?” Urban Geography 34 (3): 305–26.

94.

Robb

Isaac

. 2018. “Beyond Blades of Grass.” Presentation and Response to Questions, Reclaiming Vacant Properties conference, Milwaukee, WI, May 16.

95.

Rogers

Everett M.

2003. Diffusion of Innovations. New York: Free Press.

96.

Roy

Allison H.

Wenger

Seth J.

Fletcher

Tim D.

Walsh

Christopher J.

Ladson

Anthony R.

Shuster

William D.

Thurston

Hale W.

Brown

Rebekah R.

2008. “Impediments and Solutions to Sustainable, Watershed-Scale Urban Stormwater Management.” Environmental Management 42:344–59.

97.

Ryan

Brent D.

Gao

Shuqi

. 2019. “Plan Implementation Challenges in a Shrinking City.” Journal of the American Planning Association 85 (4): 424–44.

98.

Sadler

Richard C.

Furr-Holden

Debra

Greene-Moton

Ella

Larkin

Brian

Timlin

Moses

Walling

Dayne

Wyatt

Thomas

. 2021. “Rightsizing Flint’s Infrastructure in the Wake of the Flint Water Crisis Would Constitute an Additional Environmental Injustice.” Journal of the American Planning Association 87 (3): 424–32.

99.

Saldaña

Johnny

. 2013. The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

100.

Smith

Neil

. 1979. “Toward a Theory of Gentrification.” Journal of the American Planning Association 45 (4): 538–48.

101.

Sonne

Bethanne

. 2015. “Managing Stormwater by Sustainable Measures.” Tulane Environmental Law Journal 27:323–50.

102.

Stapleton

Tonja

. 2017. “Strengthening Capacity and Capital in Detroit.” Presentation at the Great Lakes Green Infrastructure Conference, Detroit, June 1.

103.

Stoker

Robert P.

Stone

Clarence N.

Worgs

Donn

. 2015. “Neighborhood Policy in Baltimore.” In Urban Neighborhoods in a New Era, edited by Stone

Clarence N.

Stoker

Robert P.

, 50–80. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

104.

Sugrue

Thomas J.

2005. The Origins of the Urban Crisis. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

105.

Thomson

Dale E.

Etienne

Harley

. 2017. “Fiscal Crisis and Community Development.” Housing Policy Debate 27 (1): 137–65.

106.

Thriving Communities. 2016. “Cleveland Neighborhoods by the Numbers: 2015 Cleveland Property Inventory.” Cleveland: Western Reserve Land Conservancy, June. https://issuu.com/wrlconservancy/docs/clevelandpropertyinventoryreport_is.

107.

United States of America vs. Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District. 2010. “Consent Decree: United States District Court for the Northern District of Ohio.”

108.

U.S. Census Bureau. 1952. Census of Population: 1950. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce.

109.

U.S. Census Bureau. 1962. Census of Housing: 1960. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

110.

U.S. Census Bureau. 2010. “Census of Population and Housing.” https://data.census.gov/table?q=2010+decennial+census

111.

U.S. Census Bureau. 2011–2015. “American Community Survey.” https://data.census.gov/advanced?y=2015&d=ACS+5-Year+Estimates+Selected+Population+Detailed+Tables

112.

U.S. Census Bureau. 2021. “American Community Survey.” https://data.census.gov/all?q=American+Community+Survey+2021

113.

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. 2015. “HUD Awards $8.9 Million in Community Development Block Grant Disaster Relief Funds to the City of Detroit.” Press release. August 7. https://www.legistorm.com/stormfeed/view_rss/741204/organization/69536/title/hud-awards-89-million-in-community-development-block-grantdisaster-relief-funds-to-the-city-of-detroitnbsp.html.

114.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2013. “National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permit No. MI0022802, Issued March 1.” EPA-HQ-OW-2016-0376-0084.

115.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2021. “What is Green Infrastructure?” https://www.epa.gov/green-infrastructure/about-green-infrastructure.

116.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2022. “Benefits of Green Infrastructure.” https://www.epa.gov/green-infrastructure/benefits-green-infrastructure.

117.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2024. “EPA Green Infrastructure Resources.” https://www.epa.gov/green-infrastructure/epa-green-infrastructure-resources#compliance.

118.

Wiechmann

Thorsten

Pallagst

Karina M.

2012. “Urban Shrinkage in Germany and the USA.” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 36 (2): 261–80.

119.

Williams

Christy

Christian

Dan

Hufnagel

Carol

. 2014. “Memo to DWSD and City Departments re CS-1522 Green Infrastructure Program, Code and Ordinance Review.” Tetra Tech. Received from authors. November 11.

120.

Wisconsin Sea Grant. 2017. Tackling Barriers to Green Infrastructure. Madison: University of Wisconsin–Madison.

121.

Yin

Jordan

. 1998. “The Community Development Industry System.” Journal of Urban Affairs 20 (2): 137–57.

122.

Yin

Robert K.

2014. Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Challenges in Reusing Vacant Residential Land in Legacy Cities for Green Stormwater Infrastructure: The Cases of Detroit and Cleveland

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References