Water scarcity is a significant threat to urban and regional planning. Water scarcity has challenged planners to respond to the problem in an important but previously overlooked way. Although the connection between land and water planning has not been adequately recognized in planning education and research, some governments have begun to manage the two natural resources together. Drawing upon the literature on integrated policy approach and policy implementation, this article presents a summary of policy actions in the past decade aimed at better integrating land use and water resource planning in Colorado. This article also contributes to broader debates on mediating the divide between land use and water management.
BartlingHughLindstromMattWalterAshleigh. 2016. “Urban Planning and Environmental Policy in the West.” In Environmental Politics and Policy in the West, edited by SmithZachary A.FreemuthJohn, 3rd ed., 79–100. Boulder: University Press of Colorado.
BatesSarah. 2012. “Bridging the Governance Gap: Emerging Strategies to Integrate Water and Land Use Planning.” Natural Resources Journal52 (1): 61–97. https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/nrj/vol52/iss1/3.
9.
BeckwithDrew. 2014. “Integrating Land Use and Water Planning.” Journal of the American Water Works Association106 (9): 75–79. doi:10.5942/jawwa.2014.106.0131.
BierbrauerAnnaBrachnaJonathanStefaniKatherinePiroRockyStokerPhilip. 2021. “Survey of Water Planning in Colorado: Prepared for the Colorado Department of Natural Resources.” https://cdola.colorado.gov/water-land-use-integration.
12.
BirklandThomas A.2019. An Introduction to the Policy Process: Theories, Concepts, and Models of Public Policy Making. 5th ed.New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781351023948.
BlomquistWilliam A.SchlagerEdellaHeikkilaTanya. 2004. Common Waters, Diverging Streams: Linking Institutions to Water Management in Arizona, California, and Colorado. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future.
15.
BowenElinor R.1982. “The Pressman-Wildavsky Paradox: Four Addenda or Why Models Based on Probability Theory Can Predict Implementation Success and Suggest Useful Tactical Advice for Implementers.” Journal of Public Policy2 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1017/S0143814X00001768.
deLeonPeterdeLeonLinda. 2002. “What Ever Happened to Policy Implementation? An Alternative Approach.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory12 (4): 467–92. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jpart.a003544.
36.
de OliveiraHenrique CamposYouJongeunCoelhoAndré Pires. 2021. “Governing Coalitions and Key Performance Indicators of Port Governance.” Maritime Transport Research2:100023. doi:10.1016/j.martra.2021.100023.
DyckmanCaitlin S.2016. “Sustaining the Commons: The Coercive to Cooperative, Resilient, and Adaptive Nature of State Comprehensive Water Planning Legislation.” Journal of the American Planning Association82 (4): 327–49. doi:10.1080/01944363.2016.1214537.
39.
DyckmanCaitlin S.PaulsenKurt. 2012. “Not in My Watershed! Will Increased Federal Supervision Really Bring Better Coordination between Land Use and Water Planning?”Journal of Planning Education and Research32 (1): 91–106. doi:10.1177/0739456X11426877.
40.
DyerCaroline. 1999. “Researching the Implementation of Educational Policy: A Backward Mapping Approach.” Comparative Education35 (1): 45–62. doi:10.1080/03050069928062.
41.
EagleSteven J.2017. “Land Use Regulation and Good Intentions.” Journal of Land Use and Environmental Law33 (1): 87–144. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26895798.
42.
ElliottDonald L., ed. 2018. Colorado Land Planning and Development Law. 11th ed.Denver: CBA-CLE Books.
43.
ElmoreRichard F.1979. “Backward Mapping: Implementation Research and Policy Decisions.” Political Science Quarterly94 (4): 601–16. doi:10.2307/2149628.
44.
ElmoreRichard F.1985. “Forward and Backward Mapping: Reversible Logic in the Analysis of Public Policy.” In Policy Implementation in Federal and Unitary Systems: Questions of Analysis and Design, edited by HanfKennethToonenTheo A. J., 33–70. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff.
EvansKrista. 2021. “Overcoming Barriers to Tiny and Small Home Urban Integration: A Comparative Case Study in the Carolinas.” Journal of Planning Education and Research41 (3): 270–81. doi:10.1177/0739456X18788938.
FieldsBillyThomasJeffreyWagnerJacob A.2017. “Living with Water in the Era of Climate Change: Lessons from the Lafitte Greenway in Post-Katrina New Orleans.” Journal of Planning Education and Research37 (3): 309–21. doi:10.1177/0739456X16655600.
FuXinyuTangZhenghong. 2013. “Planning for Drought-Resilient Communities: An Evaluation of Local Comprehensive Plans in the Fastest Growing Counties in the US.” Cities32:60–69. doi:10.1016/j.cities.2013.03.001.
53.
GleickPeter H.CohenMichaelCooleyHeatherDonnellyKristinaFultonJulianHaMai-LanMorrisonJasonPhurisambanRapichanRippmanHeatherWoodwardStefanie. 2018. The World’s Water: Vol. 9. The Report on Freshwater Resources. Oakland: Pacific Institute.
54.
GogginMalcolm L.BowmanAnnLesterJamesO’TooleLaurence J.1990. Implementation Theory and Practice: Toward A Third Generation. Glenview: Scott Foresman.
HanfKennethToonenTheo A. J, eds. 1985. Policy Implementation in Federal and Unitary Systems: Questions of Analysis and Design. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff.
57.
HastingsEmilyPottsTavis. 2013. “Marine Litter: Progress in Developing an Integrated Policy Approach in Scotland.” Marine Policy42:49–55. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2013.01.024.
58.
HillMichaelHupePeter. 2022. Implementing Public Policy: An Introduction to the Study of Operational Governance. 4th ed.Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
59.
HoeyLesliRumbachAndrewShakeJoshua D.2017. “Bringing Practice to the Classroom: Using a Deliberative Learning and Case Study Approach to Teach International Planning.” Journal of Planning Education and Research37 (2): 223–33. doi:10.1177/0739456X16649030.
60.
HoldenMeg. 2012. “Is Integrated Planning any More than the Sum of its Parts? Considerations for Planning Sustainable Cities.” Journal of Planning Education and Research32 (3): 305–18. doi:10.1177/0739456X12449483.
61.
HowlettMichael. 2019. “Moving Policy Implementation Theory Forward: A Multiple Streams/Critical Juncture Approach.” Public Policy and Administration34 (4): 405–30. doi:10.1177/0952076718775791.
62.
HowlettMichaelRaynerJeremy. 2007. “Design Principles for Policy Mixes: Cohesion and Coherence in ‘New Governance Arrangements.’”Policy and Society26 (4): 1–18. doi:10.1016/S1449-4035(07)70118-2.
63.
HundleyNorrisJr.2009. Water and the West: The Colorado River Compact and the Politics of Water in the American West. 2nd ed.Berkeley: University of California Press.
64.
JiangMingkaiFelzerBenjamin S.SahagianDork. 2016. “Characterizing Predictability of Precipitation Means and Extremes Over the Conterminous United States, 1949–2010.” Journal of Climate29 (7): 2621–33. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0560.1.
65.
KaiserEdward J.GodschalkDavid R.1995. “Twentieth Century Land Use Planning: A Stalwart Family Tree.” Journal of the American Planning Association61 (3): 365–85. doi:10.1080/01944369508975648.
66.
KenneyDouglas S.1999. “Historical and Sociopolitical Context of the Western Watersheds Movement: Human Dimensions of Watershed Management.” Journal of the American Water Resources Association35 (3): 493–503. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.1999.tb03606.x.
67.
KenneyDouglas S.2020. “The Changing Fate of Western Rivers: The Case of the Colorado.” In The Environmental Politics and Policy of Western Public Lands, edited by WoltersErika AllenSteelBrent, 103–20. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press.
68.
KenneyDouglas S.GoemansChristopherKleinRobertaLowreyJessicaReidyKevin. 2008. “Residential Water Demand Management: Lessons from Aurora, Colorado.” Journal of the American Water Resources Association44 (1): 192–207. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.2007.00147.x.
69.
KoebeleElizabeth A.2019. “Integrating Collaborative Governance Theory with the Advocacy Coalition Framework.” Journal of Public Policy39 (1): 35–64. doi:10.1017/S0143814X18000041.
70.
KoontzTomas M.NewigJens. 2014. “From Planning to Implementation: Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches for Collaborative Watershed Management.” Policy Studies Journal42 (3): 416–42. doi:10.1111/psj.12067.
71.
LaffertyWilliamHovdenEivind. 2003. “Environmental Policy Integration: Towards an Analytical Framework.” Environmental Politics12 (3): 1–22. doi:10.1080/09644010412331308254.
72.
LasswellHarold D.1956. The Decision Process: Seven Categories of Functional Analysis. College Park: University of Maryland Press.
73.
LipskyMichael. 1980. Street-Level Bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Services. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
74.
LipskyMichael. 2010. Street-Level Bureaucracy, 30th Anniversary Edition: Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Services. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7758/9781610446631.
75.
LiuJunguoYangHongGoslingSimon N.KummuMattiFlörkeMartinaPfisterStephanHanasakiNaota, et al. 2017. “Water Scarcity Assessments in the Past, Present, and Future.” Earth’s Future5 (6): 545–59. doi:10.1002/2016EF000518.
76.
LohCarolyn G.2012. “Four Potential Disconnects in the Community Planning Process.” Journal of Planning Education and Research32 (1): 33–47. doi:10.1177/0739456X11424161.
77.
LukasJeffBarsugliJosephDoeskenNolanRangwalaImtiazWolterKlaus. 2014. Climate Change in Colorado: A Synthesis to Support Water Resources Management and Adaptation. Boulder: University of Colorado. https://wwa.colorado.edu/climate/co2014report.
78.
LukasJeffPaytonElizabethMcAfeeStephanieWoodAndyWoodhouseConnieHardingBenWoeldersLineke, et al. 2020. Colorado River Basin Climate and Hydrology: State of the Science. Boulder: University of Colorado. doi:10.25810/3hcv-w477.
79.
MandelkerDaniel R.1976. “The Role of the Local Comprehensive Plan in Land use Regulation.” Michigan Law Review74 (5): 899–973. doi:10.2307/1287830.
80.
MargerumRichard D.2002. “Evaluating Collaborative Planning: Implications from an Empirical Analysis of Growth Management.” Journal of the American Planning Association68 (2): 179–93. doi:10.1080/01944360208976264.
81.
MargerumRichard D.2011. Beyond Consensus: Improving Collaborative Planning and Management. Cambridge: MIT Press. doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262015813.001.0001.
82.
MatlandRichard E.1995. “Synthesizing the Implementation Literature: The Ambiguity-Conflict Model of Policy Implementation.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory5 (2): 145–74. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jpart.a037242.
83.
MayPeter J.WinterSøren C.2009. “Politicians, Managers, and Street-Level Bureaucrats: Influences on Policy Implementation.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory19 (3): 453–76. doi:10.1093/jopart/mum030.
84.
MazmanianDaniel A.SabatierPaul A.1989. Implementation and Public Policy: With a New Postscript. Rev. ed. Lanham: University Press of America.
85.
McNabbDavid E.2017. Water Resource Management: Sustainability in an Era of Climate Change. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
OsborneDavidGaeblerTed. 1992. Reinventing Government: How the Entrepreneurial Spirit Is Transforming the Public Sector. Reading: Addison-Wesley.
90.
OstromElinorJanssenMarco A.2004. “Multi-Level Governance and Resilience of Social-Ecological Systems.” In Globalisation, Poverty and Conflict: A Critical “Development” Reader, edited by SpoorMax, 239–59. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
91.
O’TooleLaurence J.1986. “Policy Recommendations for Multi-Actor Implementation: An Assessment of the Field.” Journal of Public Policy6 (2): 181–210. doi:10.1017/S0143814X00006486.
92.
PressmanJeffrey L.WildavskyAaron. 1973. Implementation: How Great Expectations in Washington are Dashed in Oakland; Or, Why it’s Amazing that Federal Programs Work At All, This Being a Saga of the Economic Development Administration as Told by Two Sympathetic Observers Who Seek to Build Morals on a Foundation of Ruined Hopes. Berkeley: University of California Press.
93.
QuayRaySternliebFaithRauhEleanorAndradeRileyBartholomewAnnaWhiteDaveHolwayJimSuggZacharyRuglandErin. 2022. “Evaluating the Effectiveness of Land and Water Integrative Practices for Achieving Water Sustainability within the Colorado River Basin: Perceptions and Indicators.” Water International47 (2): 257–77. doi:10.1080/02508060.2022.2041281.
94.
RabeBarry. 2011. “Contested Federalism and American Climate Policy.” Publius41 (3): 494–521. doi:10.1093/publius/pjr017.
95.
RaynerJeremyHowlettMichael. 2009. “Introduction: Understanding Integrated Policy Strategies and Their Evolution.” Policy and Society28 (2): 99–109. doi:10.1016/j.polsoc.2009.05.001.
96.
RobertsAlasdair. 2020. Strategies for Governing: Reinventing Public Administration for a Dangerous Century. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. doi:10.1515/9781501745607.
97.
RoggeKaroline S.ReichardtKristin. 2016. “Policy Mixes for Sustainability Transitions: An Extended Concept and Framework for Analysis.” Research Policy45 (8): 1620–35. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2016.04.004.
98.
RouseDavidPiroRocky. 2021. The Comprehensive Plan: Sustainable, Resilient, and Equitable Communities for the 21st Century. New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003024170.
RyanNeal. 1995. “Unravelling Conceptual Developments in Implementation Analysis.” Australian Journal of Public Administration54 (1): 65–81. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8500.1995.tb01112.x.
103.
SabatierPaul A.1986. “Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches in Implementation Research: A Critical Analysis and Suggested Synthesis.” Journal of Public Policy6 (1): 21–48. doi:10.1017/S0143814X00003846.
104.
SabatierPaul A.1988. “An Advocacy Coalition Framework of Policy Change and the Role of Policy-Oriented Learning Therein.” Policy Sciences21 (2/3): 129–68. doi:10.1007/BF00136406.
105.
SabatierPaul A.MazmanianDaniel A.1980. “Policy Implementation: A Framework of Analysis.” Policy Studies Journal8 (4): 538–60. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0072.1980.tb01266.x.
106.
SaetrenHarald. 2005. “Facts and Myths about Research on Public Policy Implementation: Out-of-Fashion, Allegedly Dead, but Still Very Much Alive and Relevant.” Policy Studies Journal33 (4): 559–82. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0072.2005.00133.x.
107.
SaetrenHarald. 2014. “Implementing the Third Generation Research Paradigm in Policy Implementation Research: An Empirical Assessment.” Public Policy and Administration29 (2): 84–105. doi:10.1177/0952076713513487.
108.
SaetrenHaraldHupePeter. 2018. “Policy Implementation in an Age of Governance.” In The Palgrave Handbook of Public Administration and Management in Europe, edited by OngaroEdoardoVan ThielSandra, 553–75. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
109.
SandfortJodi R.MoultonStephanie. 2020. “Replication or Innovation? Structuration in Policy Implementation.” Perspectives on Public Management and Governance3 (2): 141–54. doi:10.1093/ppmgov/gvz029.
110.
SchaubSimonVogelerColetteMetzFlorence. 2022. “Designing Policy Mixes for the Sustainable Management of Water Resources.” Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning24 (5): 463–71. doi:10.1080/1523908X.2022.2100751.
111.
ScheberleDenise. 2004. Federalism and Environmental Policy: Trust and the Politics of Implementation. 2nd ed.Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
112.
SchlagerEdellaHeikkilaTanya. 2011. “Left High and Dry? Climate Change, Common-Pool Resource Theory, and the Adaptability of Western Water Compacts.” Public Administration Review71 (3): 461–70. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2011.02367.x.
113.
SchneiderAnneIngramHelen. 1993. “Social Construction of Target Populations: Implications for Politics and Policy.” American Political Science Review87 (2): 334–47. doi:10.2307/2939044.
SicilianoMichael D.MoolenaarNienke M.DalyAlan J.LiouYi-Hwa. 2017. “A Cognitive Perspective on Policy Implementation: Reform Beliefs, Sensemaking, and Social Networks.” Public Administration Review77 (6): 889–901. doi:10.1111/puar.12797.
116.
SmithRebecca A.GirthAmanda M.HutzelMargaret. 2021. “Assessing Organizational Role and Perceptions of Programmatic Success in Policy Implementation.” Administration & Society53 (10): 1512–46. doi:10.1177/00953997211011624.
117.
StokerPhilipAlbrechtTameeFollingstadGretelCarlsonEric. 2022. “Integrating Land Use Planning and Water Management in U.S. Cities: A Literature Review.” Journal of the American Water Resources Association58 (3): 321–35. doi:10.1111/1752-1688.13022.
SwannWilliam L.2017. “Examining the Impact of Local Collaborative Tools on Urban Sustainability Efforts: Does the Managerial Environment Matter?”American Review of Public Administration47 (4): 455–68. doi:10.1177/0275074015598576.
TorenvliedRené. 1996. “Political Control of Implementation Agencies: Effects of Political Consensus on Agency Compliance.” Rationality and Society8 (1): 25–56. doi:10.1177/104346396008001002.
124.
TosunJaleLangAchim. 2017. “Policy Integration: Mapping the Different Concepts.” Policy Studies38 (6): 553–70. doi:10.1080/01442872.2017.1339239.
125.
TreinPhilippBiesbroekRobbertBolognesiThomasCejudoGuillermo M.DuffyRobertHustedtThuridMeyerIris. 2021. “Policy Coordination and Integration: A Research Agenda.” Public Administration Review81 (5): 973–77. doi:10.1111/puar.13180.
126.
TreinPhilippMaggettiMartinoMeyerIris. 2021. “Necessary Conditions for Policy Integration and Administrative Coordination Reforms: An Exploratory Analysis.” Journal of European Public Policy28 (9): 1410–31. doi:10.1080/13501763.2020.1788121.
127.
TummersLarsBekkersVictor. 2014. “Policy Implementation, Street-Level Bureaucracy, and the Importance of Discretion.” Public Management Review16 (4): 527–47. doi:10.1080/14719037.2013.841978.
128.
UdallBradleyOverpeckJonathan. 2017. “The Twenty-First Century Colorado River Hot Drought and Implications for the Future.” Water Resources Research53 (3): 2404–18. doi:10.1002/2016WR019638.
U.K. Performance and Innovation Unit. 2000. Wiring It Up: Whitehall’s Management of Cross-cutting Policies and Services. London: The Stationery Office Bookshops.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. 2022. “Interior Department Announces Actions to Protect Colorado River System, Sets 2023 Operating Conditions for Lake Powell and Lake Mead.” https://www.usbr.gov/newsroom/#/news-release/4294.
Van HornCarl E.1979. Policy Implementation in the Federal System: National Goals and Local Implementors. Lexington: Lexington Books.
141.
Van MeterDonald S.Van HornCarl E.1975. “The Policy Implementation Process: A Conceptual Framework.” Administration & Society6 (4): 445–88. doi:10.1177/009539977500600404.
142.
VinceJoanna. 2015. “Integrated Policy Approaches and Policy Failure: The Case of Australia’s Oceans Policy.” Policy Sciences48 (2): 159–80. doi:10.1007/s11077-015-9215-z.
143.
WeibleChristopher M.2008. “Caught in a Maelstrom: Implementing California Marine Protected Areas.” Coastal Management36 (4): 350–73. doi:10.1080/08920750802266387.
144.
WeibleChristopher M.SabatierPaul A.LubellMark. 2004. “A Comparison of a Collaborative and Top-Down Approach to the Use of Science in Policy: Establishing Marine Protected Areas in California.” Policy Studies Journal32 (2): 187–207. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0072.2004.00060.x.
145.
WilliamsParkCookBenjamin I.SmerdonJason E.2022. “Rapid Intensification of the Emerging Southwestern North American Megadrought in 2020-2021.” Nature Climate Change12:232–34. doi:10.1038/s41558-022-01290-z.
146.
XiaoMuUdallBradleyLettenmaierDennis P.2018. “On the Causes of Declining Colorado River Streamflows.” Water Resources Research54 (9): 6739–56. doi:10.1029/2018WR023153.
147.
YinRobert K.2017. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods. 6th ed.Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
148.
YouJongeun. 2019. “Re-Imagining Regulatory Approaches for Methane Emissions.” Hatfield Graduate Journal of Public Affairs3 (2): 4. doi:10.15760/hgjpa.2019.3.2.4.
149.
YouJongeunWeibleChristopher M.HeikkilaTanya. 2022. “Exploring Instigator and Defender Policy Scenarios in the Siting of Energy Infrastructure.” Politics & Policy50 (1): 8–32. doi:10.1111/polp.12442.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
