This article contributes to the debate evolving around the political legacy of armed conflict. We evaluate the effect of war experiences during the 1998–1999 civil war in Kosovo on various modes of political participation. We find that war victims are on average more likely to participate in non-institutionalized forms of participation such as signing petitions and to participate in protests in the postwar era. In addition, we show that the impact of war experiences on political protest is contingent upon the postwar situation. War experiences are linked to protest behavior when a survivor is economically disadvantaged after the war. However, war experiences lose their impact on protest behavior when people do not encounter economic grievances in the postwar environment. In this vein, exploring the postwar context enriches our understanding of the political legacy of war victimization.
AiALPetersonCUbelhorD (2002) War-related trauma and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder among adult Kosovar refugees. Journal of Traumatic Stress15(2): 157–160.
3.
AltonjiJGElderTDTaberCR (2005) Selection on observed and unobserved variables: Assessing the effectiveness of Catholic schools. Journal of Political Economy113(1): 151–184.
4.
BalcellsL (2012) The consequences of victimization on political identities: Evidence from Spain. Politics & Society40(3): 311–347.
5.
BartlettW (2009) Economic development in the European super-periphery: Evidence from the Western Balkans. Economic Annals54(181): 21–44. DOI: 10.2298/EKA0981021B.
6.
BasogluMLivanouMCrnobaricCFranciskovicTSuljicEDuricDVranesicM (2005) Psychiatric and cognitive effects of war in former yugoslavia: association of lack of redress for trauma and posttraumatic stress reactions. Journal of the American Medical Association294(5): 580–590.
7.
BatesonR (2012) Crime Victimization and political participation. American Political Science Review106(3): 570–587.
8.
BauerMCassarAChytilovaJHenrichJ (2014) War’s enduring effects on the development of egalitarian motivations and in-group biases. Psychological Science25(1): 47–57.
9.
BauerMBlattmanCChytilovaJHenrichJMiguelEMittsT (2016) Can war foster cooperation?Journal of Economic Perspectives30(3): 249–274.
10.
BecchettiLConzoPRomeoA (2014) Violence, trust, and trustworthiness: Evidence from a Nairobi slum. Oxford Economic Papers66(1): 283–305.
11.
BellowsJMiguelE (2009) War and local collective action in Sierra Leone. Journal of Public Economics93(11–12): 1144–1157.
12.
BeurmannK (2008) Human rights in Kosovo. Human Rights Review9(1): 41–54.
13.
BislimiFT (2012) International statebuilding in Kosovo: The shifting trend in the level of US–EU involvement. Western Balkans Policy Review2(2): 48–72.
14.
BlancoLRuizI (2013) The impact of crime and insecurity on trust in democracy and institutions. American Economic Review103(3): 284–288.
15.
BlattmanC (2009) From violence to voting: War and political participation in Uganda. American Political Science Review103(02): 231–247.
16.
BlevinsCEWusikMFSullivanCPJonesRTHughesM (2016) Do negative changes in worldview mediate links between mass trauma and reckless behavior? A longitudinal exploratory study. Community Mental Health52(1): 10–17.
17.
BoothK (2001) The Kosovo Tragedy. The Human Rights Dimensions. London: Frank Cass.
18.
BoyleMJ (2014) Violence after War: Explaining Instability in Post-conflict States. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
19.
BradburnNMRipsLJShevellSK (1987) Answering autobiographical questions: The impact of memory and inference on surveys. Science236(4798): 157–161.
20.
BramsenIvan der PloegHM (1999) Fifty years later: The long-term psychological adjustment of ageing World War II survivors. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica100(5): 350–358.
21.
BriscoeIPriceM (2011) Kosovo’s New Map of Power: Governance and Crime in the Wake of Independence. Den Haag: Netherlands Institute of International Relations `Clingendael’.
22.
BrodatyHJoffeCLuscombeGThompsonC (2004) Vulnerability to post-traumatic stress disorder and psychological morbidity in aged holocaust survivors. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry19 (10): 968–79.
23.
BrownTA (2006) Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research. New York: The Guilford Press.
24.
CalhounLGTedeschiRG (2014) Handbook of Posttraumatic Growth: Research and Practice. London: Routledge.
25.
CapusselaAL (2015) State-building in Kosovo: Democracy, Corruption and the EU in the Balkans. London: Tauris.
26.
CardozoBLVergaraAAganiFGotwayCA (2000) Mental health, social functioning, and attitudes of Kosovar Albanians following the war in Kosovo. Journal of the American Medical Association284(5): 569–577.
27.
DeimelJ (2014) The international presence in Kosovo, 1999–2008. In: RametSPSimkusAAListhaugO (eds), Civic and Uncivic Values in Kosovo: History, Politics, and Value Transformation. Budapest: Central European University Press, pp. 119–142.
28.
De JuanAPierskallaJH (2016) Civil war violence and political trust: Microlevel evidence from Nepal. Conflict Management and Peace Science33(1): 67–88.
29.
De LucaGVerpoortenM (2015) Civil war and political participation: Evidence from Uganda. Economic Development and Cultural Change64(1): 113–141.
30.
De WetE (2009) The governance of Kosovo: Security Council Resolution 1244 and the establishment and functioning of Eulex. American Journal of International Law103(1): 83–96.
31.
DyrstadK (2015) Political support in Kosovo. In: RametSPSimkusAAListhaugO (eds), Civic and Uncivic Values in Kosovo: History, Politics, and Value Transformation. Budapest: Central European University Press, pp. 324–341.
32.
EhlersAClarkDM (2000) A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy38 (4): 319–345. DOI: 10.1016/S0005–7967(99)00123–0.
GarnefskiNKraaijVSpinhovenP (2001) Negative life events, cognitive emotion regulation and emotional problems. Personality and Individual Differences30(8): 1311–1327.
35.
GenschelPSchlichteK (1998) Civil war as a chronic condition. Law and State58(1): 107–123.
36.
GrosjeanP (2014) Conflict and social and political preferences: Evidence from World War II and civil conflict in 35 European countries. Comparative Economic Studies56(3): 424–451.
37.
GünalA (2014) The development of the political System since February 2008. In: RametSPSimkusAAListhaugO (eds), Civic and Uncivic Values in Kosovo: History, Politics, and Value Transformation. Budapest: Central European University Press, pp. 119–144.
38.
HensellSGerdesF (2014) Von Rebellen zu Eliten. Aufstieg und Scheitern bewaffneter Gruppen nach dem Krieg. Politische Vierteljahresschrift2(55): 217–242.
39.
HetemiADuriIHaskukaM (2013) Public Pulse Report 6. Public Opinion Report in Kosovo. Report no. 6. Pristina: UNDP.
40.
Hirsch-HoeflerSCanettiDRapaportCHobfollSE (2016) Conflict will harden your heart: Exposure to violence, psychological distress, and peace barriers in Israel and Palestine. British Journal of Political Science. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0007123414000374.
41.
HobfollSEHallBJCanetti-NisimDGaleaSJohnsonRJPalmieriPA (2007) Refining our understanding of traumatic growth in the face of terrorism: Moving from meaning cognitions to doing what is meaningful. Applied Psychology56(3): 345–366.
42.
HongYIKangWC (2015) Trauma and stigma: The long-term effects of wartime violence on political attitudes. Conflict Management and Peace Science69: 1–23.
43.
HoogheMQuintelierE (2013) Political participation in Europe. In: GabrielOWKeilSI (eds), Society and Democracy in Europe. New York: Routledge, pp. 220–243.
44.
HRW (2001) Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo. Washington, DC: Human Rights Watch.
ICG (1999) Violence in Kosovo: Who’s Killing Whom? ICG Balkans Report. Report no. 78. Pristina: International Crisis Group.
47.
ICG (2001) Reality Demands: Documenting Violations of International Humanitarian Law in Kosovo 1999. ICG Report. Report no. 10. Brussels: International Crisis Group.
48.
JudahT (2000) Kosovo: War and Revenge. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
49.
KalyvasSN (2007) Civil Wars. In: BoixCStokesSS (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 416–434.
50.
KalyvasSN (2008) Promises and pitfalls of an emerging research program: The microdynamics of civil war. In: KalyvasSNShapiroIMasoudT (eds), Order, Conflict and Violence. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 397–422.
51.
KalyvasSNKocherMA (2007) How “free” is free riding in civil wars? Violence, insurgency, and the collective action problem. World Politics69(2): 177–216.
52.
KashdanTBMorinaNPriebeS (2009) Post-traumatic stress disorder, social anxiety disorder, and depression in survivors of the Kosovo War: Experiential avoidance as a contributor to distress and quality of life. Journal of Anxiety Disorders23(2): 185–196.
53.
KecmanovicM (2013) The short-run effects of the Croatian war on education, employment, and earnings. Journal of Conflict Resolution57(6): 991–1010.
54.
KijewskiSFreitagM (2016) Civil war and the formation of social trust in Kosovo. Journal of Conflict Resolution. DOI: 10.1177/0022002716666324.
55.
KlandermansBvan StekelenburgJ (2013) Social movements and the dynamics of collective action. In: HuddyLSearsDOLevyJS (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology (2nd edn). Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 774–811.
56.
KlandermansBRoefsMOlivierJ (2001) Grievance formation in a country in transition: South Africa, 1994–1998. Social Psychology Quarterly64(1): 41–54.
57.
KrizmanićMKolesarićV (1996) A salutogenic model of psychosocial help. Review of Psychology3(1–2): 69–75.
58.
LazarusRSFolkmanS (1984) Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. New York: Springer.
59.
LubraniO (2009) Effects of global financial crisis in Kosovo and the region. Development & Transition no. 5. Available at: www.ks.undp.org (accessed 21 February 2017).
60.
MaerckerAHerrleJGrimmI (1999) Dresdner Bomebnnachtsopfer 50 Jahre danach: Eine Untersuchung patho- und salutogenetischer Variablen. Zeitschrift für Gerontopsychologie & -psychiatrie12(3): 157–167.
61.
MulajK (2008) Resisting an oppressive regime: The case of Kosovo Liberation Army. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism31(12): 1103–1119.
NunnNWantchekonL (2011) The slave trade and the origins of mistrust in Africa. American Economic Review101(7): 3221–3252.
64.
OSCE (2003) Parallel Structures in Kosovo. Human Rights Division Report. Report no. 10. Pristina: OSCE Mission in Kosovo.
65.
OSCE-KVM, OSCE Verification Mission (1999) Kosovo/Kosova: As seen, as told. An analysis of the human rights findings of the OSCE Kosovo Verification Mission October 1998 to June 1999. Special Report from the Kosovo Verification Mission of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. Report no 1. Warsaw. Available at: http://www.osce.org/odihr/17772?download=true (accessed 25 May 2017).
66.
PavkovicA (2010) By the force of arms: Violence and morality in secessionist conflict. In: DoyleDH (ed.), Secession as an International Phenomenon from America’s Civil War to Contemporary Separatist Movements. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, pp. 259–276.
67.
PriebeSBogicMAjdukovicDFranciskovicTGaleazziGMKucukalicALecic-TosevskiDMorinaNPopovskiMWangDSchützwohlM (2010) Mental disorders following war in the Balkans: A study in 5 countries. Archives of General Psychiatry67(5): 518–528.
68.
RathfelderE (2009) Zehn Jahre Kosovokrieg: Es musste sein [Ten years after the kosovo war: We had to do it]. Die Tageszeitung (taz), 23March. Available at: http://www.taz.de/!5165844/ (accessed 25 May 2017).
69.
RingdalK (2015) Civic values in Kosovo within a European perspective. In: RametSPSimkusAAListhaugO (eds), Civic and Uncivic Values in Kosovo: History, Politics, and Value Transformation. Budapest: Central European University Press, pp. 273–294.
70.
RingdalGIRingdalK (2012) War experiences and war-related distress in Bosnia–Herzegovina, Croatia and Kosovo. In: RingdalKSimkusAA (eds), The Aftermath of War. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, pp. 27–46.
71.
RingdalGIRingdalKSimkusAA (2008) War-related distress among Kosovar Albanians. Journal of Loss and Trauma13(1): 59–71.
72.
RohnerDThoenigMZilibottiF (2013) Seeds of distrust: Conflict in Uganda. Journal of Economic Growth18(3): 217–252.
73.
SavjakN (2000) Displacement as a factor causing posttraumatic stress disorder. In: PowellSDurakovicB (eds), The Psychosocial Consequences of War. Sarajevo: UNICEF, pp. 42–46.
74.
SchickMMorinaNKlaghoferRSchnyderUMüllerJ (2013) Trauma, mental health, and intergenerational associations in Kosovar Families 11 years after the war. European Journal of Psychotraumatology13 (4): 1–10.
75.
Schulhofer-WohlJ (2014) Armed Group Repertoires and Recollection in Survey Research. HiCN Working Paper 171. University of Sussex.
76.
SearingEARios-AvilaFLecyJD (2013) The impact of psychological trauma on wages in post-conflict Bosnia and Herzegovina. Social Science and Medicine96: 165–173.
77.
SeifertR (2015) Nationalism and beyond: Memory and identity in postwar Kosovo/Kosova. In: KissaneB (ed.), After Civil War. Division, Reconstruction, and Reconciliation in Contemporary Europe. Philadelphia, PA: University of Philadelphia Press, pp. 213–244.
TedeschiRGCalhounLG (1996) The posttraumatic growth inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress9(3): 455–471.
80.
TeorellJTorcalMMonteroJR (2007) Political participation: Mapping the terrain. In: van DethJWMonteroJRWestholmA (eds), Citizenship and Involvement in European Democracies: A Comparative Perspective. New York: Routledge, pp. 334–357.
81.
UNSC (1998) Report of the Secretary-General prepared pursuant to Resolutions 1160 (1998) and 1199 (1998) of the Security Council. Secretary-General’s Report for the Security Council. Report S/1998/912 United Nations Security Council. Available at: http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/1998/1221 (accessed 25 May 2017).
82.
ValentinoNAGregorowiczKGroenendykEW (2009) Efficacy, emotions and the habit of participation. Political Behavior31(3): 307–330.
83.
ValentinoNABraderTGroenendykEWGregorowiczKHutchingsVL (2011) Election night’s alright for fighting: The role of emotions in political participation. The Journal of Politics73(1): 156–170.
84.
Van StekelenburgJKlandermansB (2013) The social psychology of protest. Current Sociology Review61(56): 886–905.
85.
WangSJSalihuMRushitiFBalaLModvigJ (2010) Survivors of the war in the Northern Kosovo: Violence exposure, risk factors and public health effects of an ethnic conflict. Conflict and Health4(1): 11.
86.
WenzelTAganiFRushitiFAbdullahuIMaxhuniB (2006) Long-term Sequels of War, Social Functioning and Mental Health in Kosovo. Mental Health Report of DRC. Report no. 8. Pristina: Danish Refugee Council.
87.
WeichertM (2007) How to make them do what you want them to do? In: DeimelJvan MeursW (eds), The Balkan Prism. A Retrospective by Policy-Makers and Analysts. Munich: Verlag Otto Sagner, pp. 363–372.
88.
WoodEJ (2006) Insurgent Collective Action and Civil War in El Salvador. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
