Research on third parties’ conflict management has traditionally proposed a stark dichotomy between neutral mediators and non-neutral military joiners. Recent studies have blurred this dichotomy but have not investigated joiners’ use of techniques other than military action. Using data from Corbetta and Dixon (2005) on non-neutral interventions in post-Second World War interstate disputes, this paper explores non-neutral third parties’ choice of diplomatic, economic or military intervention techniques. It hypothesizes that such a choice is a function of third parties’ intensity of preferences for one side in conflict and antagonism toward the other side, which result from social proximity to the disputants.
AltfeldMFBueno de MesquitaB (1979) Choosing side in war. International Studies Quarterly23: 87–112.
2.
AydinA (2008) Choosing sides: Economic interdependence and interstate disputes. Journal of Politics70: 1098–1108.
3.
AydinA (2012) Foreign Powers and Interventions in Armed Conflicts. Redwood City, CA: Stanford University Press.
4.
BeardsleyK (2009) Intervention without leverage: Explaining the prevalence of weak mediators. International Interactions35: 272–97.
5.
BeardsleyK (2013) Using the right tool for the job: Mediator leverage and conflict resolution. Penn State Journal of Law and International Affairs2: 57–65.
6.
BennettDSStamAC (2000) EUGene: A conceptual manual. International Interactions26: 179–204.
7.
BlauPM (1977) Inequality and Heterogeneity: A Primitive Theory of Social Structure. New York: Free Press.
8.
Bueno de MesquitaB (1981) The War Trap. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
9.
Bueno de MesquitaB (1989) The contribution of expected utility theory to the study of international conflict. In: MidlarskyM (ed.) Handbook of War Studies. Boston, MA: Allen and Unwin.
10.
CentolaDGonzales-AvellaJCEguiliuzVMSan MiguelM (2007) Homophily, cultural drift, and the co-evolution of cultural groups. Journal of Conflict Resolution51: 905–929.
11.
CorbettaR (2008) Informal commitments and the escalation of intervention in ongoing conflicts. Typescript.
12.
CorbettaR (2010) Determinants of third parties’ intervention and alignment choices in ongoing conflicts, 1946–2001. Foreign Policy Analysis6: 61–85.
13.
CorbettaR (2013) Cooperative and antagonistic networks: Multidimensional affinity and intervention in ongoing conflicts, 1946–2001. International Studies Quarterly57: 370–384.
14.
CorbettaRDixonWJ (2005) Danger beyond dyads: Third party participants in interstate disputes. Conflict Management and Peace Science22: 39–61.
15.
CorbettaRGrantKA (2012) Intervention in conflicts from a network perspective. Conflict Management and Peace Science29(3): 314–340.
16.
CorbettaRVolgyTJRhameyJP (2013) Major power status (in)consistency and political relevance in international relations studies. Peace Economics, Peace Studies, and Public Policy19: 291–307.
17.
CranmerSJDesmaraisBAKirklandJH (2012) Toward a network theory of alliance formation. International Interactions38: 295–324.
18.
De LucaGPerottiV (2011) Estimation of ordered response models with sample selection. Stata Journal11: 213–239.
19.
EllingsenT (2000) Colorful community or ethnic witches’ brew? Multiethnicity and domestic conflict during and after the Cold War. Journal of Conflict Resolution44: 228–249.
20.
EnterlineAJ (1999) Some other time: The timing of third party intervention in dynamic interstate conflicts, 1816–1992. Paper presented at the 33rd Annual Meeting of the Peace Science Society (International), Ann Arbor, MI, 8–10 October.
21.
FavrettoK (2009) Should peacemakers take sides? Major power mediation, coercion, and bias. American Political Science Review53: 248–263.
22.
FearonJD (1994) Signaling versus balance of power and interests: An empirical test of a crisis bargaining model. Journal of Conflict Resolution38: 236–269.
23.
FearonJD (2002) Selection effects and deterrence. International Interactions28: 5–29.
24.
FrazierDVDixonWJ (2006) Third party intermediaries and negotiated settlements, 1946–2000. International Interactions32: 385–408.
25.
GarztkeE (2000) Preferences and the democratic peace. International Studies Quarterly44: 191–210.
26.
GartzkeEGleditschKS (2003) Balancing, bandwagoning, bargaining, and war. Paper presented at the European Consortium of Political Research Joint Workshop Sessions, Edinburgh, 28 March to 2 April.
27.
GhosnFPalmerGBremerSA (2004) The MID3 data set, 1993–2001: Procedures, coding rules, and description. Conflict Management and Peace Science21: 133–154.
28.
GleditschKS (2002) All International Politics Is Local: The Diffusion of Conflict, Integration, and Democratization. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
29.
GuisingerASmithA (2002) Honest threats: The interaction of reputation and political institutions in international crises. Journal of Conflict Resolution46: 175–200.
30.
Hafner-BurtonEMMontgomeryAH (2006) Power positions: International organizations, social networks, and conflict. Journal of Conflict Resolution50: 3–27.
31.
Hafner-BurtonEMKahlerMMontgomeryAH (2009) Network analysis for international relations. International Organization63: 559–592.
32.
HendersonETuckerR (2001) Clear and present strangers: The clash of civilizations and international conflict. International Studies Quarterly45: 317–338.
33.
HogbladhSPetterssonTThemnerL (2011) External support in armed conflict, 1975–2009: Presenting new data. Presented at the 52nd Annual International Studies Association Convention, Montreal, 16–19 March.
34.
HuthPK (1998) Major power intervention in international crises, 1918–1988. Journal of Conflict Resolution42: 744–770.
35.
JonesDMBremerSASingerJD (1996) Militarized interstate disputes, 1816–1992: Rationale, coding rules, and empirical patterns. Conflict Management and Peace Science15: 163–213.
36.
JoyceKABraithwaiteA (2013) Geographic proximity and third-party joiners in militarized interstate disputes. Journal of Peace Research50: 595–608.
37.
JoyceKAGhosnFBayerR (2014) When and whom to join: The expansion of violent interstate conflicts. British Journal of Political Science44: 205–238.
38.
KimJHBarnettGA (2007) A structural analysis of international conflict: From a communications perspective. International Interactions33: 135–165.
39.
KinneBJ (2013) Network dynamics and the evolution of international cooperation. American Political Science Review107(4): 766–785.
40.
KyddA (2003) Which side are you on? Bias, credibility, and mediation. American Journal of Political Science47: 597–611.
41.
KyddA (2006) When can mediators build trust?American Political Science Review100: 449–462.
42.
LaiBReiterD (2000) Democracy, political similarity, and international alliances, 1816–1992. Journal of Conflict Resolution44: 203–227.
43.
LeedsABMitchellSMLongAG (2000) Reevaluating alliance reliability. Journal of Conflict Resolution44: 686–699.
44.
LeedsABRitterJMMitchellSMLongAG (2002. Alliance treaty obligations and provisions, 1815–1944. International Interactions28: 237–260.
45.
LektzianDJSprecherCM (2007) Sanctions, signals, and militarized conflict. American Journal of Political Science51: 415–431.
46.
MaozZ (2006) Network polarization, network independence, and international conflict, 1816–2002. Journal of Peace Research43: 391–411.
47.
MaozZ (2011) Networks of Nations: The Evolution, Structure, and Impact of International Networks, 1816–2001. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
48.
MaozZ (2012) Preferential attachment, homophily, and the structure of international networks, 1816–2003. Conflict Management and Peace Science29: 341–369.
49.
MaozZKupermanRDTerrisLGTalmudI (2005) International networks and international politics. In: MintzARussettB (eds) New Directions for International Relations. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
50.
MaozZTerrisLGKupermanRDTalmudI (2006) Structural equivalence and international conflict, 1816–2000: A social network analysis of dyadic affinities and conflict. Journal of Conflict Resolution50: 664–689.
51.
MaozZTerrisLGKupermanRDTalmudI (2007) What is the enemy of my enemy? Causes and consequences of imbalanced international relations. Journal of Politics69: 100–115.
52.
MarshallMGJaggersK (2002) Polity IV Project: Political regime characteristics and transitions, 1800–2002. University of Maryland: Typescript.
53.
McPhersonMJ (2004) A blau space primer: Prolegomenon to an ecology of affiliation. Industrial and Corporate Change13: 263–280.
54.
McPhersonMJSmith-LovinL (1987) Homophily in voluntary organizations: Status distance and the composition of face-to-face groups. American Sociological Review52: 370–379.
55.
McPhersonMJSmith-LovinLCookJM (2001) Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks. Annual Review of Sociology27: 415–444.
56.
MelanderEMollerFObergM (2009) Managing intrastate low-intensity armed conflict 1993–2004: A new dataset. International Interactions35: 58–85.
57.
MelinMMKochMT (2010) Jumping into the fray: Alliances, power, institutions and the timing of conflict expansion. International interactions36: 1–27.
58.
MorgenthauHJ (1985) Politics Among Nations, 6th edn. New York: Knopf.
59.
MostBAStarrH (1980) Diffusion, reinforcement, geopolitics, and the spread of war. American Political Science Review74: 932–946.
60.
MostBAStarrHSiversonR (1989) The logic and study of the diffusion of international conflict. In: MidlarskyM (ed.) Handbook of War Studies. Boston, MA: Allen and Unwin.
61.
OnealJRRussettB (2005) The rule of three, let it be: When more really is better. Conflict Management and Peace Science22: 293–310.
62.
OwsiakAP (2014) Conflict management trajectories in militarized interstate disputes: A conceptual framework and theoretical foundations. International Studies Review16: 50–78.
63.
OwsiakAPFrazierDV (in press) The Conflict management efforts of allies in interstate disputes. Foreign Policy Analysis.
64.
PevehouseJNordstromTWarnkeK (2004) The Correlates of War 2 International Governmental Organizations Data version 2.0. Conflict Management and Peace Science21: 101–119.
65.
PopielarzPAMcPhersonMJ (1995) On the edge or in between: Niche position, niche overlap, and the duration of voluntary association membership. American Journal of Sociology101: 698–720.
66.
QuackenbushSL (2006) Not only whether but whom: Three-party extended deterrence. Journal of Conflict Resolution50: 562–83.
67.
ReganPMAydinA (2006) Diplomacy and other forms of intervention in civil wars. Journal of Conflict Resolution50: 736–56.
68.
ReganPMFrankRWAydinA (2009) Diplomatic interventions and civil wars: A new dataset. Journal of Peace Research46: 135–146.
69.
ReiterDStamAC (2002) Democracies at War. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
70.
RosenauJN (1969) Intervention as a scientific concept. Journal of Conflict Resolution13: 149–171.
71.
SabroskyAN (1980) Interstate alliances: Their reliability and the expansion of war. In: SingerDJ (ed.) The Correlates of War II: Testing Some Realpolitik Models. New York: Free Press.
72.
SartoriAE (2002) The might of the pen: A reputational theory of communication in international disputes. International Organization56: 121–149.
73.
SartoriAE (2005) Deterrence by Diplomacy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
74.
SchultzKA (2001) Looking for audience costs. Journal of Conflict Resolution45: 32–60.
75.
SchwellerR (1994) Bandwagoning for profit: Bringing the revisionist state back in. International Security19: 72–107.
76.
SignorinoCSRitterJM (1999) Tau-B or not tau-B: Measuring the similarity of foreign policy positions. International Studies Quarterly43: 115–144.
77.
SingerDJ (1988) Reconstructing the Correlates of War Dataset on material capabilities of states, 1816–1985. International Interaction14: 115–132.
78.
SingerDJSmallM (1966) National alliance commitments and wars involvement, 1815–1945. Peace Research Society, PapersV: 109–140.
79.
SingerDJBremerSStuckeyJ (1972) Capability distribution, uncertainty, and major power war, 1820–1965. In: RussettB (ed.) Peace, War, and Numbers. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.
80.
SiversonRMEmmonsJ (1991) Birds of a feather: Democratic alliance choices in the twentieth century. Journal of Conflict Resolution35: 285–306.
81.
SiversonRMStarrH (1990) Opportunity, willingness, and the diffusion of war. American Political Science Review84: 47–67.
82.
SiversonRStarrH (1991) The Diffusion of War: A Study in Opportunity and Willingness. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
83.
SiversonRMKingJ (1979) Alliances and the expansion of war. In: SingerDJWallaceMD (eds) To Augur Well: Early Warning Indicators in World Politics. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.
84.
SlantchevBL (2005) Military coercion in interstate crises. American Political Science Review99: 533–547.
85.
SmithA (1995) Alliance formation and war. International Studies Quarterly39: 405–425.
86.
SmithA (1996) To intervene or not to intervene: A biased decision. Journal of Conflict Resolution40: 16–40.
87.
SnyderDKickE (1979) Structural position in the world system and economic growth, 1955–1970: A multiple network analysis of transnational interactions. American Journal of Sociology84: 1096–1126.
88.
StarrH (2005) Territory, proximity, and spatiality: The geography of international conflict. International Studies Review7: 387–406.
89.
ThyneC (2006) Cheap signals with costly consequences: The effect of interstate relations on civil war, 1945–1999. Journal of Conflict Resolution50: 937–61.
90.
ThyneC (2009) International Relations and Civil Conflict. Lexington, KY: Lexington Books.
91.
VolgyTJCorbettaRGrantKABairdRG (eds) (2011) Major Powers and the Quest for Status in International Politics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
92.
WaltzKN (1979) Theory of International Politics. New York: McGraw-Hill.
93.
WassermanSFaustK (1994) Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
94.
WernerS (2000a) Deterring intervention: The stakes of war and third party involvement. American Journal of Political Science44: 720–732.
95.
WernerS (2000b) The effects of political similarity on the onset of militarized disputes, 1816–1985. Political Research Quarterly52: 343–74.
96.
WernerSLemkeD (1997) Opposites do not attract: The impact of domestic institutions, power, and prior commitments on alignment choices. International Studies Quarterly41: 529–546.
97.
YamamotoYBremerSA (1980) Wider wars and restless nights: Major power intervention in ongoing wars. In: SingerDJ (ed.) The Correlates of War II: Testing Some Realpolitik Models. New York: Free Press.
98.
YuenA (2009) Target concessions in the shadow of intervention. Journal of Conflict Resolution53: 745–773.
