The aim of this study is to test a model of online learners' engagement, which integrates social support (from teachers, peers, and family members) and sense of community as direct and indirect factors, with academic self-efficacy playing a mediating role. Survey results based on a questionnaire administered to 255 students enrolled in an online university course confirm, but only partially, our hypothesized model. Path analysis revealed that social support provided by teachers was the only interindividual factor that influenced students' engagement. Moreover, the sense of community was also a significant direct predictor of online learners' engagement. Finally, self-efficacy functioned as a mediator only between the sense of community and engagement.
AppletonJ. J.ChristensonS. L.KimD.ReschlyA. L. (2006) Measuring cognitive and psychological engagement: Validation of the student engagement instrument. Journal of School Psychology44: 427–445.
3.
BanduraA. (1977) Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review84: 191–215.
4.
BanduraA. (1993) Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist28: 117–148.
5.
BanduraA. (1997) Self-efficacy: The exercise of control, New York, NY: Freeman.
6.
BanduraA. (2003) Self-efficacy. The feeling of personal efficacy, Bruxelles, Belgium: De boeck université.
7.
BanduraA.LockeE. (2003) Negative self-efficacy and goal effects revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology88(1): 87–99.
8.
BoudrenghienG.FrenayM.BourgeoisE. (2011) Transition from highschool to university: Educational project's representation and motivation. L'Orientation Scolaire et Professionnelle40(2): 125–155.
9.
BourdagesL.DelmotteC. (2001) Persistence in distance education at university. Journal of Distance Education/Revue de l'enseignement à distance16(2): 23–36.
10.
BradfordG.WyattS. (2010) Online learning and student satisfaction: Academic standing, ethnicity and their influence on facilitated learning, engagement, and information fluency. The Internet and Higher Education13(3): 108–114.
11.
Brault-LabbéA.DubéL. (2008) Academic engagement, over-engagement and under-engagement at college: Toward a better understanding of students' well-being. Revue des sciences de l'éducation34(3): 729–751.
12.
Brault-LabbéA.DubéL. (2009) Toward a better understanding of psychological engagement: Theoretical review and integrative model. Les cahiers internationaux de psychologie sociale1(81): 115–131.
13.
Brault-LabbéA.DubéL. (2010) Academic engagement, well-being and self-determination among university students. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science42(2): 80–92.
14.
BrownS.TramayneS.HoxhaD.TelanderK.FanX.LentR. (2008) Social cognitive predictors of college students' academic performance and persistence: A meta-analytic path analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior72(3): 298–308.
15.
CaplanG. (1974) Support systems and community mental health: Lectures on concept development, New York, NY: Behavioral Publications.
16.
CastlesJ. (2004) Persistence and the adult learner. Factors affecting persistence in Open University students. Active Learning in Higher Education5(2): 166–179.
17.
CloseW.SolbergS. (2008) Predicting achievement, distress, and retention among lower-income Latino youth. Journal of Vocational Behavior72(1): 31–42.
18.
ConceiçãoS. (2006) Faculty lived experiences in the online environment. Adult Education Quarterly57(1): 26–45.
19.
Contreras-CastilloJ.FavelaJ.Pérez-FragosoC.Santamaría-del-AngelE. (2004) Informal interactions and their implications for online course. Computers & Education42(2): 149–168.
20.
DanceyC.ReidyJ. (2007) Statistics without Maths for psychologists, Bruxelles, Belgium: De Boeck.
21.
DisethA. (2011) Self-efficacy, goal orientations and learning strategies as mediators between preceding and subsequent academic achievement. Learning and Individual Differences21(2): 191–195.
22.
EvrardY.PrasB.RouxE. (2003) Market: Studies and research in marketing, Paris, France: Dunod.
23.
FaerberR. (2002) The learning group in distance education: Its characteristics in a virtual environment. In: LarozeF.KarsentiT. (eds) La place des TICE en formation initiale et continue à l'enseignement: Bilan et perspectives [The role of ICT in teacher education initial and continuing training: results and prospects], Sherbrooke, QC: CRP, Université de Sherbrooke, pp. 99–128. .
24.
FrancescatoD.PorcelliR.MebaneM. E.CuddettaM.KlobasJ.RenziP. (2006) Evaluation of the efficacy of collaborative learning in face-to-face and computer-supported university contexts. Computers in Human Behavior22(2): 163–176.
25.
FredericksJ. A.BlumenfeldP. C.ParisA. H. (2004) School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research74(1): 59–109.
26.
HaythornthwaiteC.KazmerM. M.RobinsJ.ShoemakerS. (2000) Community development among distance learners: Temporal and technological dimensions. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication6, 1).doi: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2000.tb00114.x.
27.
HolmbeckG. N. (1997) Toward terminological, conceptual, and statistical clarity in the study of mediators and moderators: Examples from the child-clinical and pediatric psychology literatures. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology65(4): 599–610.
28.
HouseJ. S. (1981) Work stress and social support, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
29.
HuL.BentlerP. M. (1999) Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling6(1): 1–55.
30.
HuP. J.-H.HuiW. (2012) Examining the role of learning engagement in technology-mediated learning and its effects on learning effectiveness and satisfaction. Decision Support Systems53: 782–792.
31.
KimK.-J.LiuS.BonkC. J. (2005) Online MBA students' perceptions of online learning: Benefits, challenges, and suggestions. The Internet and Higher Education8(4): 335–344.
32.
KlineR. B. (1998) Principles and practice of structural equation modeling, New York, NY: Guilford Press.
33.
KuhG. D.CruceT. M.ShoupR.KinzieJ.GonyeaR. M. (2008) Unmasking the effects of student engagement on college grades and persistence. Journal of Higher Education79: 540–563.
34.
LeeJ.-S. (2012) The effects of the teacher–student relationship and academic press on student engagement and academic performance. International Journal of Educational Research53: 330–340.
35.
LiuX.MagjukaR. J.BonkC. J.LeeS. (2007) Does sense of community matter? An examination of participants' perceptions of building learning communities in online courses. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education8(1): 9–24.
MullenG. E.Tallent-RunnelsM. K. (2006) Student outcomes and perceptions of instructors' demands and support in online and traditional classrooms. The Internet and Higher Education9(4): 257–266.
38.
OncuS.CakirH. (2011) Research in online learning environments: Priorities and methodologies. Computers & Education57(1): 1098–1108.
39.
OstermanK. F. (2000) Students' need for belonging in the school community. Review of Educational Research70(3): 323–367.
40.
PaechterM.MaierB.MacherD. (2010) Students' expectations of, and experiences in e-learning: Their relation to learning achievements and course satisfaction. Computers & Education54(1): 222–229.
41.
ParkJ. (2007) Factors related to learner dropout in online learning. In: NafukhoF. M.ChermackT. H.GrahamC. M. (eds) Proceedings of the 2007 Academy of Human Resource Development Annual Conference, Indianapolis, IN: AHRD, pp. 1–8.
42.
ParkJ.-H.ChoiH. J. (2009) Factors influencing adult learners' decision to drop out or persist in online learning. Educational Technology & Society12(4): 207–217.
43.
RovaiA. P. (2001) Building classroom community at a distance: A case study. Educational Technology Research and Development Journal49(4): 33–48.
44.
RovaiA. P. (2002a) Development of an instrument to measure classroom community. The Internet and Higher Education5(3): 197–211.
45.
RovaiA. P. (2002b) Building sense of community at a distance. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning3(1): 1–16.
46.
RovaiA. P. (2002c) A preliminary look at the structural differences of higher education classroom communities in traditional and ALN courses. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks6(1): 41–56.
47.
RovaiA. P. (2002d) Sense of community, perceived cognitive learning and persistence in asynchronous learning networks. The Internet and Higher Education5(4): 319–332.
48.
RovaiA. P.BarnumK. T. (2003) On-line course effectiveness: An analysis of student interactions and perceptions of learning. Journal of Distance Education18(1): 57–73.
49.
RovaiA. P.WightingM. J.LuckingR. (2004) The classroom and school community inventory: Development, refinement and validation of a self-report measure for educational research. The Internet and Higher Education7(4): 263–280.
50.
Schermelleh-EngelK.MoosbruggerH.MüllerH. (2003) Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Test of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of Psychological Research Online8(2): 23–74.
51.
ShenD.ChoM.-H.TsaiC.-L.MarraR. (2013) Unpacking online learning experiences: Online learning self-efficacy and learning satisfaction. The Internet and Higher Education19: 10–17.
52.
ShinN. (2002) Beyond interaction: The relational construct of transactional presence. Open Learning: The Journal of Open and Distance Learning17(2): 121–137.
53.
SteinD.GlazerH. R. (2003) Mentoring the adult learner in academic midlife at distance education university. The American Journal of Distance Education17(1): 7–23.
54.
TaplinM.JegedeO. (2001) Gender differences in factors influencing achievement of distance education students. Open Learning: The Journal of Open and Distance Learning16(2): 133–154.
55.
TorresJ. B.SolbergS. (2001) Role of self-efficacy, stress, social integration, and family support in Latino college student persistence and health. Journal of Vocational Behavior59(1): 53–63.
56.
VayreE.DupuyR.Croity-BelzS. (2011) University online learners' evaluative behaviors: Effect of sense of community. Psychologie du Travail et des Organisations17: 517–532.
57.
VayreE.VonthronA.-M.VannereauJ. (2014) Effects of training motives, self-efficacy beliefs and engagement on e-learners' retention, failure and achievement. L'orientation scolaire et professionnelle43(3): 263–288.
58.
VonthronA.-M.LagabrielleC.PouchardD. (2007) Professional training maintenance: Effects of motivational, cognitive and social factors. L'orientation Scolaire et Professionnelle36(3): 401–420.
59.
WangM. T.EcclesJ. S. (2013) School context, achievement motivation, and academic engagement: A longitudinal study of school engagement using a multidimensional perspective. Learning and Instruction28: 12–23.
60.
WangM. T.WillettJ. B.EcclesJ. S. (2011) The assessment of school engagement: Examining dimensionality and measurement invariance by gender and race/ethnicity. Journal of School Psychology49(4): 465–480.
61.
WegerifR. (1998) The social dimension of asynchronous learning networks. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks2(1): 34–49.
62.
YoungS. (2006) Student views of effective online teaching in higher education. The American Journal of Distance Education20(2): 65–77.
63.
Zimmer-GembeckM. J.ChipuerH. M.HanischM.CreedP. A.McGregorL. (2006) Relationships at school and stage-environment fit as resources for adolescent engagement and achievement. Journal of Adolescence29(6): 911–933.
