Melamine has shown broad utility as a flame retardant in plastics although its commercial use to date as a flame retardant additive has been principally in coatings and flexible urethane foams. Its mode of action appears to involve endothermic sublimation and vapor-phase dissociation, but it also undergoes conversion to non-volatile products and ammonia. Combinations of melamine with other flame retardants of all types have been reported as hav ing advantageous performance. The present review covers the patent and non- patent literature with 130 references.**
Vardersall, H.L.1971. "Intumescent Coating Systems, Their Development and Chemistry," J. Fire Flamm. , 2:97-140.
2.
Kay, M., A.F. Price and I. Lavery.1979. "A Review of Intumescent Materials, with Emphasis on Melamine Formulations," J. Fire Ret. Chem. , 6:69-91.
3.
Batt, A.M. and P. Appleyard.1989. "The Mechanism and Performance of Combustion Modified Flexible Foams in Small Scale Fire Tests," J. Fire Sci., 7:338-363.
4.
Hume, J., K. Pettett and J. Jenc.1990 "Cone Calorimetry of CMHR Polyurethane Foam: An Evaluation of the Effects of Melamine Additive," Flame Retard. '90 (ProceedingsLondon: Elsevier, pp. 234-241.
5.
Grace, O.M., R.E. Mericle and J.D. Taylor.1985. "Melamine Modified Polyurethane Foam ," Proc. 29th SPI Annu. Tech./Mark. Conf. (Magic of Polyurethanes, Reon, NV, Oct. 23-25, 1985. New York: SPI Polyurethane Division, pp. 27-33;
Sullivan, D.A. and J. Televantos.1989. "Combustion Modified Ultracel Foam for Residential Furniture Cushioning," in Polyurethanes '89, Proceedings of the SPI 32nd Ann. Tech./Marketing Conf, Oct. 1-4, 1989. New York: SPI Polyurethane Division, pp. 246-250.
9.
Haas, P.F. and H.P. Hettel.1989. "CMHR Foams Based on PHD Polyols to Comply with United Kingdom Furniture and Furnishings (Fire) (Saftey) Regulations 1988," in Polyurethanes '89, Proc. SPI 32nd Ann. Tech./Market. Conf, Oct. 1-4, 1989, pp. 490-494.
10.
O.M. Grace, T.M. Smiecinski and S.E. Wujcik (to BASF Corp.). 1990. U.S. Patent. 4,892,893.
11.
Craig, T.A., J.J. Lear and P. Motte.1993. "New Generation Flame Retardant Polyols for Slabstock Applications," in Polyurethanes World Congress, Proceedings of the SPI/ISOPA/Canada, Oct. 10-13, 1993, pp. 54-59.
12.
Vanspeybroeck, R.S.L., R.A. Sewell and J.A. Thoen.1990. " Horizontal Burn Test at Different Oxygen Levels: A Small Scale Screening Test for Flexible Polyurethane Foam with Excellent Correlation to the BS 5872, Part 2, Source 5," J. Fire Sciences, 8:421-454.
13.
Vanspeybroeck, R.P. Van Hees and P. Vandevelde.1993. "Combustion Behavior of Polyurethane Flexible Foams under Cone Calorimetry Test Conditions ," Fire and Materials, 17(4):155-166.
14.
Costa, L. and G. Camino.1988. "Thermal Behavior of Melamine," J. Thermal Anal., 34:423.
15.
Costa, L., G. Camino and M. Luda di Cortemiglia .1990. "Mechanism of Thermal Degradation of Fire-Retardant Melamine Salts," Chapter 15 in Fire and Polymers , G. Nelson, ed., Amer. Chem. Soc. Symposium Series 425, Washington, DC., pp. 211-238.
16.
Cullis, C.F. and M.M. Hirschler.1982. The Combustion of Organic Polymers . Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, p. 47.
17.
Stephenson, C.C. and D.J. Berets.1950. "Heat Capacities and Entropies of Melamine and Dicyandiamide," J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 74:882-883.
18.
Crews, G.M., W. Ripperger, D.B. Kerrsbohm and J. Seeholzer.1990. "Melamine and Guanamines," in Ullman's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. VCH Weinheim , p. 172.
19.
Mackay, J.S. (to American Cyanamid Co.). 1951 . U.S. patent 2,566, 231.
20.
Williams, F.A.1974. "A Unified View of Fire Suppression ," J. Fire Flammability, 5:54-63.
21.
Ewing, C.T., J.T. Hughes and H.W. Carhart.1984. "Extinction of Hydrocarbon Flames Based on the Heat-Absorption Processes Which Occur in Them," Fire & Materials, 8(3):148-156.
22.
Ewing, C.T. , F.R. Faith, J.T. Hughes and H.W. Carhart.1989. "Evidence for Flame Extinguishment by Thermal Mechanisms," Fire Technology, (Aug. 1989), pp. 195-212.
23.
Cullis, C.F. , M.M. Hirschler and Q.M. Tao.1991. " Studies of the Effects of Phosphorus-Nitrogen-Bromine Systems on the Combustion of Some Thermophastic Polymers," Eur. Polym. J, 27(3):281-289.
24.
Little, R.W.1964. "Flameproofing Textile Fabrics ," Amer. Chem. Soc. Monograph Series No. 104, New York: Reinhold Publishing Corp., pp. 77-82.
25.
Pitts, J.J.1971. "Metal Amine Complexes: A New Class of Flame Retardants," J. Cellular Plast., July/Aug., pp. 202-207.
26.
Miller, D.R. , R.L. Evers and G.B. Skinner.1963. "Effect of Various Inhibitors on Hydrogen-Air Flame Speeds," Combustion and Flame , 7:137-142.
27.
Haynes, B.S. , H. Jander, J. Mätzing and H.G. Wagner.1982. "The Influence of Gaseous Additives on the Formation of Soot in Premixed Flames," 19th Symposium (International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, pp. 1379-1385.
28.
Garo, A., C. Hilaire and D. Puechberty.1992. "Experimental Study of Methane-Oxygen Flames Doped with Nitrogen Oxide or Ammonia. Comparison with Modeling," Combust. Sci. and Tech., 86:87-103.
29.
Haynes, B.S.1977. "The Oxidation of Hydrogen Cyanide in Fuel-Rich Flames," Combustion and Flame, 28:113-121.
30.
May, H.1959. "Pyrolysis of Melamine," J Appl. Chem. , 9:340.
31.
Takimoto, M. and T. Funikawa.1963. Kogyo Kagaku Zasshi , 66:797, 804;
32.
Chem. Abstr., 60:5499g.
33.
Weil, E.D., C.-H. Huang, N. Patel, W. Zhu and V. Choudhary.1994. "A New Look at Some Old Flame Retardants-Melamine and Melamine Phosphates," paper at the 5th Annual BCC Conference on Flame Retardancy, Recent Advances in Flame Retardancy of Polymeric Materials, Stamford, CT, May 24-26, 1994.
34.
Weil, E.D. and W. Zhu.1994. "Some Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Melamine as a Flame Retardant," Proc. Am. Chem. Soc. Div. of Polym. Mater. and Eng., 71:297-298.
35.
Costa, L., G. Camino, G. Bertelli, R. Locatelli and M.P. Luda.1991. "Thermal Degradation and Fire Retardancy of Antimony and Bismuth Trihalides-Melamine Complexes," Polym. Degrad. Stabil.34:55-73.
36.
Van Wazer, J.R.1958. Phosphorus and Its Compounds: Vol. I., Chemistry . New York: Interscience Publishers Inc., pp. 773-774.
37.
Miller, T.N. and A.A. Vitola.1986. Chapter 8 in Neorganicheskie Soedineniya Fosfora c Azotom (in Russian, Akad. Nauk Latv. SSR, Inst. Neorgan. Khim. Riga: Zinatne.
38.
Bloomsfield, P.R.1963. U.S. patent 3,082,120.
39.
Bloomfield, P.R.1961. "PON Polymers," Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, (3):89-103.
40.
Cremer, J. et al. (Knapsack A.-G. and Chemiefaser Lenzing A.-G.). 1974. Ger. Appl. 2,311,180.
41.
Sommer, K. (to Benckiser-Knapsack). 1977. British patent 1,461,615.
42.
Tacke, P., D. Neuray and D. Michael (to Bayer A.-G.). 1979. U.S. patent 4,177,185.
43.
Langley, J.T. , M.J. Drews and R.H. Barker.1980. "Pyrolysis and combustion of Cellulose. VIII. Thermal Analysis of the Phosphorylation of Cellulose and Model Carbohydrates during the Pyrolysis in the Presence of Aromatic Phosphates and Phosphoramides," J. Appl. Polym. Sci.,25:243-262.
Kobayashi, K. and H. Matsuo (to Shinko Chemical Co. ). 1977. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 52152949 . Chem. Abstr., 88(24):171110g.
46.
Oesterreichische Stickstoffwerke A.-G.1972. French patent 2,096,230. Chem. Abstr. , 77(20):127486h.
47.
Bertelli, G. and R. Locatelli (to Montedison S.p.A. ). 1982. Eur. patent appl. 65160. Chem. Abstr., 98(10):73419b.
48.
Halpern, Y. (to Borg-Warner Corp.). 1982. U.S. patent 4,341,694. Chem. Abstr. , 97(22):183482d.
49.
Braun, R. (to VAMP S.r.l.). 1982. French patent appl. 2,491,937. Chem. Abstr., 97(10):73446n.
50.
Maeda, N., T. Wakahata, T. Sakairi and F. Iwami (to Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd.). 1978. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 53082845. Chem. Abstr., 89(22):180870c.
51.
Isogai, O., S. Yamagami and T. Hirai (to Idemitsu Petrochemical Co., Ltd.). 1979. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 54046250. Chem. Abstr., 91(10):75341z.
52.
Murata, T. (to Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd.). 1979. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 54026837. Chem. Abstr., 91(2):5980h.
53.
Moorwessel, D., R. Glaser and G. Pfirrmann (to Basf A.-G.). 1976. Ger. Appl. 2,506,831. Chem. Abstr., 85(22):161277r.
54.
Taniuchi, A. , H. Komori and S. Nishibori (to Daiichi Kogyu Seiyaku Co., Ltd.). 1978. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 53091953 . Chem. Abstr., 90(2):7111d.
55.
Dany, F.J., J. Wortmann, P. Deutscher and G. Braun (to A. G. Knapsack ; Ruhrchemic A.-G.). 1973. Ger. appl. 2,225,323 . Chem. Abstr., 81(8):38380j.
Komazawa, H. and Y. Ikenaga (to Polyplastics, Inc. ). 1973. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 48007043 . Chem. Abstr., 80(2):4404j.
64.
Tabana, M., T. Mitsuno and K. Mitsui (to Sumitomo Chemical Co., Ltd.). 1979. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 54036352. Chem. Abstr.91(16):124428u.
65.
Wirth, R. (to Norsolor S. A.). 1991. Fr. appl. 2,656,322. Chem. Abstr., 115(24):257622p.
66.
Tabana, M., T. Mitsuno and A. Kinoshita (to Sumitomo Chemical Co., Ltd.). 1979, Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 54064546. Chem. Abstr., 91(18):141691s.
67.
Seitz, F., R. Bueschl, B. Gareiss, N. Guentherberg and K. Muehlbach (to Basf A.-G.). 1992. Eur. patent appl. 465927. Chem. Abstr., 116(14):130514v.
68.
Muench, V., J. Hambrecht, A. Echte, K. Illers and J. Swoboda (to Basf A.-G.). 1985. Ger. appl. 3,401,835. Chem. Abstr., 104(2):663x.
69.
Muench, V., B. Czauderna, A. Echte and J. Hambrecht (to Basf A.-G.). 1986. Ger. Appl. 3,506,193. Chem. Abstr., 105(24):209983d.
70.
Ikeda, H. and T. Masaoka (to Sekisui Chemical Co., Ltd.). 1986. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 61126161. Chem. Abstr., 106(4):19489v.
71.
Tsuchama, K. , H. Ikeda and T. Shiobara (to Sekisui Chemical Co., Ltd.). 1986. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 61291643 . Chem. Abstr., 107(8):60070k.
72.
Tsuchama, K. , H. Ikeda and T. Shiobara (to Sekisui Chemical Co., Ltd.). 1986. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 61291644 . Chem. Abstr., 106(26):214997m.
73.
Tsuchama, K. , H. Ikeda and T. Shiobara (to Sekisui Chemical Co., Ltd.). 1986. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 61291642 . Chem. Abstr., 106(26):214998n.
74.
Broadbent, J.R. and M.M. Hirschler.1984. "Red Phosphorus as a Flame Retardant for a Thermoplastic Nitrogen-Containing Polymer," Eur. Polym. J., 20(11):1087-93.
75.
Seelert, S., P. Klaerner, S. Vestner, B. Ostermayer, D. Zeltner and R. Weiss (to Basf A.-G.). 1992. Eur. patent appl. 496120 . Chem. Abstr., 117(18):172842b.
76.
Feldmann, H. , S. Vestner, K. Mitulla, A. Echte and B. Ostermayer (to Basf A.-G.). 1989. Eur. patent appl. 311909. Chem. Abstr. , 111(16):135452e.
77.
Katagiri, H. , T. Fujimoto and I. Uenosono (to Asahi Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.). 1977. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 52041667 . Chem. Abstr., 87(2):6988w.
78.
Zeltner, D. , H. Feldmann, B. Ostermayer and G. McKee (to Basf A.-G.). 1992. Ger. patent appl. 4,105,925 . Chem. Abstr. , 118(6):40162r.
79.
Maeda, K., M. Chono and K. Saito (to Asahi Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.). 1979. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo koho 54038348. Chem. Abstr., 91(12):92484r.
80.
Yamamoto, A. , M. Iida, S. Oozora and K. Ueda (to Nissan Chemical Industries, Ltd.). 1979. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 541422256. Chem. Abstr., 92(16):129979e.
Nagasawa, T. , Y. Fujii, M. Sonoda, T. Sekiya and A. Nakano (to Unitika Ltd.). 1978. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 53018660. Chem. Abstr., 89(2):7136v.
84.
Obora, M., T. Nagasawa, Y. Fujii, M. Sonoda and T. Sekiya (to Unitika Ltd.). 1978. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 53111350. Chem. Abstr., 90(4):24293g.
85.
Shimo, Y. and M. Akamine (to Matsushita Electric Works, Ltd.). 1991. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 03195765. Chem. Abstr., 116(8):60976w.
86.
Gaehde, J., D. Schulz, W. Henning, J. Hofmann, W. Pioch, R. Barthel, W. Haselbach, G. Faidel, E. Kalinchev et al. (to Akad. Wissenschaften der DDR). 1987. Ger. (East) patent 242941. Chem. Abstr. , 107(18): 155487r.
87.
Hayashi, M. , Y. Yamakawa and T. Oikawa (to Mitsubishi Chemical Industries Co., Ltd.). 1978. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 53009849. Chem. Abstr., 88(24): 171133s.
88.
Von Bonin, W. and G. Henes (to Bayer A.-G. ) 1982. Ger. Appl., 3,025,217. Chem. Abstr., 96(22):18294w.
89.
Pesta, O. (to Lentia G.m.b.H. Chem. u. Pharm. Erzeugnisse-Industriebedarf ). 1972. Ger. appl. 2,054,315. Chem. Abstr., 77(12): 7650b.
Fujimoto, T. , H. Katagiri and I. Uenosono (to Asahi Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.). 1977. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 52012262 . Chem. Abstr., 86(18):122398g.
Matsuki, M. , H. Kawasaki and K. Yoshida (to Asahi Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.). 1978. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 53143668 . Chem. Abstr., 90(24):187936h.
115.
Count, T.L. (to DuPont de Nemours International S. A.). 1993. Ger. appl. 4,141,861. Chem. Abstr. , 120:9711m.
116.
Asahi Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.1980. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 55056156. Chem. Abstr., 93(10):96213r.
117.
Nakajima, T. and K. Misoo (to Mitsubishi Kasei Corp. ). 1989 . Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 01139642. Chem. Abstr. , 112(4):22040w.
118.
Tsunetani, M. (to Asahi Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.). 1987. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 62236853 . Chem. Abstr., 108(18):151586v.
119.
Herwig, W. , H. Kleiner and H. Sabel (to Hoechst A.-G. ). 1980. Ger. Appl. 2,827,867. Chem. Abstr., 92(20):164731q.
120.
Blazek, R. , J. Blazekova and S. Tainova.1985. "Properties of Melamine- and Glass Fiber-Filled Polyamide 6," Plasty Kauc. (Czech.), 22(1):17-21.
121.
Chem. Abstr., 102(22):185918w.
122.
Michael, D. and W. Kosiol (to Farbenfabriken Bayer A.-G.). 1972. U.S. patent 3,660,344. Chem. Abstr., 77(8):49662w.
123.
Bonten, H. , W. Nielinger, D. Michael, H. Selbeck and R. Mayer (to Bayer A.-G.). 1987. Ger. appl. 3,609,341. Chem. Abstr., 108(12):95544r.
124.
Schubert, N., H. Vogt, K. Maedebach, G. Raschke, W. Jecht, K. Bartschek, H. Kunth and B. Westphal (to VEB Leuna-Werke "Walter Ulbricht"). 1980. Ger. (East) patent 143918. Chem. Abstr.94(26):209802y.
125.
Koehler, G. , K. Maedebach, K. Trittmacher and H. Vogt (to VEB Leuna-Werke "Walter Ulbricht"). 1986. Ger. (East) patent 238618. Chem. Abstr., 106(26):214948w.
126.
Michael, D. and W. Kosiol (to Farbenfabriken Bayer A.-G.). 1970. Ger. appl. 1,803,606. Chem. Abstr., 73(14):67303b.
127.
Pagilagan, R. (to E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Co.). 1982. Eur. patent appl. 55893. Chem. Abstr., 97(18):145809h.
128.
Wilhelm, E. , H. Lehmann, K. Maedebach, H. Vogt and D. Walzer (to VEB Leuna-Werke "Walter Ulbricht"). 1988. Ger. (East) patent 257264 . Chem. Abstr., 110(24):214173x.
129.
Pape, D., B. Weber, W. Jecht, H. Vogt, K. Maedebach, M. Keil and R. Heldt (to VEB Leuna-Werke 'Walter Ulbricht"). 1979. Ger. (East) patent 134775. Chem. Abstr. , 91(18):141687v.
Godfried, L.M. (to "Fokker-V. F. W." N. V.). 1972. Ger. appl. 2,206,602. Chem. Abstr., 77(26):165618k.
133.
Wesch, L., C. Fradera Pellicer and L. Costa Roma.1977. Span. patent 444862. Chem. Abstr., 89(6):44672n.
134.
Kaide, T., Y. Koide, M. Takada and K. Ichikawa (to Dainichi Nippon Cables, Ltd.). 1976. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 51151746. Chem. Abstr., 86(20):141835p.
135.
McCready, R.J. , N.I. Lieu and J.A. Tyrell (to General Electric Co. ). 1988. Eur. patent appl. 281003. Chem. Abstr., 110(2):9562g.
136.
Tabana, M., N. Sekine, T. Mitsuno and K. Mitsui (to Sumitomo Chemical Co.). 1979 . Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 54015952. Chem. Abstr. , 90(26):205245p.
137.
Tabana, M., N. Sekine, T. Mitsuno and K. Mitsui (to Sumitomo Chemical Co.). 1979 . Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 54022451. Chem. Abstr. , 91(2):5946b.
138.
Bertelli, G., P. Roma and R. Locatelli (to Montedison S.p.A. ). 1979. Spanish patent 474538 . Chem. Abstr., 91(26):212226g.
139.
Kireenkova, L.N. and Yu. S. Zuev.1973. " Fire Resistant Rubbers. Development Principles and Methods of Study," Vses. Nauch.-Tekh. Konf., Mater. Protsessy Rezin. Prom.,(2):55-56.
140.
Chem. Abstr., 81(20):122247d.
141.
Furukawa, K., A. Sugiyama, C. Momose and S. Tsurumoto (to Dainichi Nippon Cables, Ltd.). 1979. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 54010352. Chem. Abstr., 90(22):169718j.
142.
Von Bonin, W., H. Ebneth and D. Schaepel (to Bayer A. G.). 1989. Ger. Offen. 3728397 A1 . Chem. Abstr., 111(10):79543w
143.
Kobayashi, K., H. Matsuo (to Shinko Kasei Kogyo Co., Ltd.). 1978. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 53064259 . Chem. Abstr., 89(18):147941d.
Maruyama, H., H. Iizuka, Y. Ishii, T. Matsui and M. Yonemushi (to Mitsui Kinzoku Paints and Chemicals Co., Ltd.). 1991. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 03031379 A2. Chem. Abstr., 115(8):73484p.
146.
Furukawa, K. and H. Adachi (to Mitsubishi Densen Kogyo K. K.). 1992. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 04080281 A2. Chem. Abstr., 117(18):172801n.
Haynes, B.S.1977. "Production of Nitrogen Compounds from Molecular Nitrogen in Fuel-Rich Hydrocarbon-Air Flames," Fuel, 56(2): 199-203.
149.
Morikawa, T.1978. "Evolution of Hydrogen Cyanide during Combustion and Pyrolysis," J Combustion Tox. , 3:315-330.
150.
Lewin, B.C., M. Paabo, L. Highburger and N. Eiler.1989. "Synergistic Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide and Carbon Dioxide Following Acute Inhalation Exposures in Rats," Fire Res. Info. Serv., Natl. Inst. of Standards and Technol., Gaithersburg, MD, May, Report No. NISTIR 89-4105.
151.
Tsuchiya, Y.1988. "Relative Significance of NO2 and HCN in Fire Gas Toxicity," Fire Safety Science Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium, Tokyo, Japan, June 13-17, pp. 381-390 (IRC Paper No. 1643).
152.
Levin, B.C., E. Braun, M. Paabo, R.H. Harris and M. Navarro.1992. "Reduction of Hydrogen Cyanide Concentrations and Acute Inhalation Toxicity from Flexible Polyurethane Foam Combustion Products by the Addition of Copper Compounds, Part IV. Effects of Combustion Conditions and Scaling on the Generation of Hydrogen Cyanide and Toxicity from Flexible Polyurethane Foams with and without Copper Compounds," Building & Fire Res. Lab., Natl. Inst. of Standards and Technol., Gaithersburg, MD, Report No. NISTIR 4989.
153.
Horacek, H.1992. "FR-Additives for PU Foams Based on Melamine, Guanidine and Derivatives," conference papers, UTECH '92, International Polyurethane Exhibition and Conference, The Hague, Netherlands, March 31, April 1-2, pp. 215-219.
154.
Hirschler, M.M., S. M. Debanne, J. B. Larsen and G. L. Nelson, eds. 1993. Carbon Monoxide and Human Lethality: Fire and Non-Fire Studies. New York: Elsevier Applied Science (now distributed by Chapman & Hall, New York ).
155.
Morikawa, T., E. Yanai, T. Okada and K. Sato.1993. " Toxicity of the Atmosphere in an Upstairs Room Caused by Inflow of Fire Effluent Gases Rising from a Burn Room," J. Fire Sciences, 11:195-209.
156.
Hirschler, M., ed. 1992. "Fire Hazard and Fire Risk Assessment," ASTM Special Publications No. 1150. Philadelphia, PA: ASTM.
