The effect of N′-(o-phenylene)dimalemide and 2,2′ dithiobis(benzothiazole) on the speed of sound, sound attenuation and loss factor, 3-D microstructure, fiber dispersion, and morphology of wood pulp-reinforced PLA composites produced by hot press was investigated. Analysis of the chemical composition and fiber length of the wood pulp fibers provided information about the mechanism of adhesion and crystallinity of the modified composites. It was found that the modified composites have quite similar sound attenuation values, whereas the 3-D tomography analysis suggests the creation of a closely compact, cross-linked microstructure with improved fiber dispersion at higher processing temperature. The occurrence of a uniform, single-phase morphology suggests good compatibility between N′-(o-phenylene)dimalemide and 2,2′ dithiobis(benzothiazole) to PLA. Fourier transform–infrared (FT–IR) spectrometry suggests the creation of a new bond involving scission of the N′-(o-phenylene)dimalemide molecule to PLA and/or wood pulp. XRD analysis showed that the largest increase in the crystallinity occurred in the modified PLA blends.
SainMMGhoshABanikI. Fiberboard composites from wood-fiber bonded with renewable wood resin. J Reinf Plast Compos2006; 25(16: 1701–1708.
2.
Commission Directive 2000/53/EC. European parliament and of the council of 18 September 2000 on end-of life vehicles. Off J Eur Union2000; L(269: 34–42.
3.
NourreddineM. Recycling of auto shredder residue. J Hazard Mater2007; 139(3: 481–490.
4.
FergussonM. End of life vehicles directive. An assessment of the current state of implementation by member states. Manuscript, Institute for European Environmental Policy, 2007.
5.
BehraveshAHZohdi AghdamASouryE. Experimental investigation of injection molding of wood/plastics composites. J Reinf Plast Compos2010; 29(3: 456–465.
6.
HarrisAMLeeEC. Improving mechanical performance of injection molded PLA by Controlling Crystallinity. J Appl Polym Sci2008; 107(4: 2246–2255.
7.
InohTKageyamaY. Investigation of bio-plastics for automotive parts. Proc Adv Plast Compon Processes Technol2004; 1850: 91–93.
8.
KarstDYangY. Effect of arrangement of L-Lactide and D-Lactide in poly[(L-Lactide)-Co-(D-Lactide)] on its resistance to hydrolysis studied by molecular modeling. Macromol Chem Phys2008; 209(2: 168–174.
ThompsonRB. Ultrasonic measurement of mechanical properties. Proceedings of IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium, San Antonio, TX, 1996, 1, 735–744.
12.
CrockerMJ. Handbook of acoustics. New York, NY: Wiley & Sons, 1998, 483–485.
13.
MouritzAPTownsendCShah KhanMZ. Non-destructive detection of fatigue damage in thick composites by pulse-echo ultrasonics. Compos Sci Technol2000; 60(1: 23–32.
14.
MaevaEYSeverinaIChapmanII GB. Ultrasonic analysis of the degree of cure and cohesive properties of the adhesive in a bond joint. Res Nondestr Eval2007; 18(2: 121–138.
15.
De RosaIMSantilliCSarasiniF. Natural fiber composites monitored by acoustic emission. J Acoust Emiss2008; 26(1: 220–228.
16.
TAPPI. Acid-insoluble lignin in wood and pulp. T 222, TAPPI, 1988.
17.
TAPPI. Alpha-, beta- and gamma-cellulose in pulp. T 203, TAPPI, 1988.
18.
SwanB. Isolation of acid-soluble lignin from the Klason lignin determination. Svensk Papperstidn1965; 68(22: 791–795.
19.
RobertsonGOlsonJAllenPChanBSethR. Measurement of fibre length, coarseness, and shape with the fibre quality analyzer. Tappi J1999; 82(10: 93–98.
20.
SinhaMBuckleyDJ. Acoustic properties of polymers. In: MarkJE (ed.) Physical properties of polymers handbook. New York, NY: Springer, 2007, 1021–1031.
21.
Van KrevelenDWNijenhuisKT. Acoustic properties. In: Van KrevelenDWNijenhuisKT (eds). Properties of polymers. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2009, 505–524.
22.
SainMLacokJBeniskaJKhunovaV. Effect of crosslinking methods on bismaleimide cured natural-rubber polyethylene blends. Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe1988; 41(9: 895–897.
23.
SainMKoktaBV. Study on molecular interaction in polyfunctional maleimide-modified polypropylene/pulp composites by ESCA, FT–IR, and DSC. J Adhes Sci Technol1993; 7(7: 743–760.
24.
SainM. Process to improve thermal properties of natural fiber composites. Patent Application Number Ca 2350112, 2004, pp. 1–28.
25.
KhunovaVSainM. Optimization of mechanical strength of reinforced composites. 2. Reactive bismaleimide-modified polypropylene composites filled with talc and zeolite. Angew Makromol Chem1995; 225(1: 11–20.
26.
SainMKoktaBV. Polyolefin-wood filler composite. I. Performance of M-phenylene bismaleimide-modified wood fiber in polypropylene composite. J Appl Polym Sci1994; 54(10: 1545–1559.
27.
XanthosM. Interfacial agents for multiphase polymer systems: recent advances. Polym Eng Sci1988; 28(21: 1392–1400.
28.
XianXJChoyCL. Impact resistance and damage evaluation of carbon fiber reinforced modified bismaleimide composites. J Reinf Plast Compos1994; 13(12: 1135–1153.
29.
DinakaranKKumarRSAlagarM. Bismaleimides (N,N′-Bismaleimide-4,4’-Diphenylmethane and N,N′-Bismaleimideo-4,4’- Diphenylsulphone) modified bisphenoldicyanate-epoxy matrices for engineering applications. Mater Manuf Processes2005; 20(2: 299–315.
30.
SainMMHudecIBeniskaJRosnerP. Contribution to heterogeneity in elasto-plastic blends. Mater Sci Eng A1989; 108(1: 63–71.
31.
ZobelB. Silvicultural effects on wood properties. IPEF Int1992; 2(1: 31–38.
32.
MoharirAV. Structure and determinants of fiber strength in native cotton. Indian J Fibre Text Res2000; 25(1: 1–7.
33.
MadakadzeICRadiotisTLiJGoelKSmithDL. Kraft pulping characteristics and pulp properties of warm season grasses. Bioresour Technol1999; 69(1: 75–85.
FengelDWegenerG. Chemical composition and analysis of wood. In: FengelDWegenerG (eds). Wood: Chemistry, ultra-structure and reactions. New York, NY: Walter de Gruyter, 1983, 26–59.
36.
Baltazar-y-JimenezABismarckA. Wetting behaviour, moisture up-take and electrokinetic properties of lignocellulosic fibres. Cellulose2007; 14(2: 115–127.
37.
PokhrelDViraraghavanT. Treatment of pulp and paper mill wastewater – a review. Sci Total Environ2004; 333(1–3: 37–58.
38.
ZeronianSHInglesbyMK. Bleaching of cellulose by hydrogen peroxide. Cellulose1995; 2(4: 265–272.
39.
StarkNMRowlandsRE. Effects of wood fiber characteristics on mechanical properties of wood/polypropylene composites. Wood Fiber Sci2003; 35(2: 167–174.
40.
BismarckAMohantyAKAranberri-AskargortaICzaplaSMisraMHinrichsenG. Surface characterization of natural fibers; surface properties and the water up-take behavior of modified sisal and coir fibers. Green Chem2001; 3(2: 100–107.
41.
AwalAGhoshSSainM. Development and morphological characterization of wood pulp reinforced biocomposite fibers. J Mater Sci2009; 44(11: 2876–2881.
42.
OksmanKSkrifvarsMSelinJF. Natural fibers as reinforcement in polylactic acid (PLA) composites. Compos Sci Technol2003; 63(9: 1317–1324.
43.
ParkerNGMatherMLMorganSPPoveyMJW. Longitudinal acoustic properties of poly(Lactic Acid) and poly(Lactic-Co-Glycolic Acid). Biomed Mater2010; 5(5: 1–10.
44.
BucurV. Acoustics of wood. Mater Sci Forum1996; 210–213: 101–108.
45.
BiwaSIdekobaSOhnoN. Wave attenuation in particulate polymer composites: independent scattering/absorption analysis and comparison to measurements. Mech Mater2002; 34(10: 671–682.
46.
BledzkiAKGassanJ. Composites reinforced with cellulose based fibers. Prog Polym Sci1999; 24(2: 221–274.
47.
CuiYHTaoJNoruziaanBCheungMLeeS. DSC analysis and mechanical properties of wood-plastic composites. J Reinf Plast Compos2010; 29(2: 278–289.
48.
GardnerKHBlackwellJ. The hydrogen bonding in native cellulose. BBA1974; 343(1: 232–237.
49.
NyquistRAPottsWJ. Characteristic infrared absorption frequencies of thiol esters and related compounds. Spectrochim Acta1959; 15: 514–538.
50.
SchwanningerMRodriguesJCPereiraHHinterstoisserB. Effects of short-time vibratory ball milling on the shape of FT–IR spectra of wood and cellulose. Vib Spectrosc2004; 36(1: 23–40.
51.
MathewAPOksmanKSainM. Mechanical properties of biodegradable composites from poly lactic acid (PLA) and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC). J Appl Polym Sci2005; 97(5: 2014–2025.
