Over the last two decades, researchers in the educational field have raised concerns regarding the high educational expectations among American youth. Studies have identified the detracking movement as one of the most important causes of this college-for-all norm. The assumption is that tracked secondary education systems, in contrast to comprehensive systems, lead to realistic expectations because of students’ clear track placement. In other words, tracking creates groups of students with homogeneous expectations. Inspired by the rich literature on the unequal selection present in tracked systems, this article questions this assumption concerning students’ allocation. We examine homogeneity of expectations in a rigidly tracked system, using data from 2,354 students in 28 schools (2013–2014) in Ghent (Belgium). Results from ordinary least squares (OLS) regression show that even in a stringently tracked system, the vocational track has the lowest homogeneity of expectations. We discuss the unmet goals of tracking in view of tracking policy.
AbrahamJohn. 2008. “Pupils’ Perceptions of Setting and Beyond—A Response to Hallam and Ireson.” British Educational Research Journal34(6):855–63.
2.
AlexanderKarl L.BozickRobertEntwisleDoris. 2008. “Warming Up, Cooling Out, or Holding Steady? Persistence and Change in Educational Expectations after High School.” Sociology of Education81(4):371–96.
3.
ArnettJeffrey J.2014. Emerging Adulthood: The Winding Road from Late Teens through the Twenties. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
4.
BairdCharlie L.BurgeStephanie W.ReynoldsJohn R.2008. “Absurdly Ambitious? Teenagers’ Expectations for the Future and the Realities of Social Structure.” Sociology Compass2(3):944–62.
5.
BallStephen J.1981. Beachside Comprehensive: A Case Study of Secondary Schooling. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
6.
BlauPeter MichaelDuncanOtis Dudley. 1967. The American Occupational Structure. New York: Wiley.
7.
BooneSimonVan HoutteMieke. 2013. “Why are teacher recommendations at the transition from primary to secondary education socially biased? A mixed-methods research.”British Journal of Sociology of Education34(1):20–38
8.
BooneSimonVan HoutteMieke. 2016. “More Ambitious Educational Choices in Urban Areas: a Matter of Local Labour Market Characteristics?”Urban Education51(8):940–963.
9.
BooneSimon. 2017. “Keuzes en het Vlaamse Onderwijssysteem” [Choices and the Flemish Education System]. In Is dat iets voor Mij, Juf? Leerlingen Versterken in het Keuzeproces van Basis naar Secundair [Is that something for me? Strengtening students in the decision-making process from primary to secondary education], edited by GoosenKarinBooneSimon, 24–37. Leuven, Belgium: Lannoo Campus.
10.
BourdieuPierrePasseronJean-Claude. 1990. Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. London, England: Sage Publications.
11.
BowlesSamuelGintisHerbert. 2002. “Schooling in Capitalist America Revisited.” Sociology of Education75(1):1–18.
12.
BreenRichardGoldthorpeJohn H.1997. “Explaining Educational Differentials towards a Formal Rational Action Theory.” Rationality and Society9(3):275–305.
13.
BrunelloGiorgioChecchiDaniele. 2007. “Does School Tracking Affect Equality of Opportunity? New International Evidence.” Economic Policy22(52):782–861.
14.
BuchmannClaudiaParkHyunjoon. 2009. “Stratification and the Formation of Expectations in Highly Differentiated Educational Systems.” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility27(4):245–67.
15.
BynnerJohnEgertonMuriel. 2001. The Wider Benefits of Higher Education. London, England: Higher Education Funding Council.
16.
ClarkBurton R.1960. “The ‘Cooling-out’ Function in Higher Education.” American Journal of Sociology65(6):569–76.
17.
CovingtonMartin V.1992. Making the Grade: A Self-worth Perspective on Motivation and School Reform. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
18.
DeclerqKoenVerbovenFrank. 2010. Slaagkansen aan Vlaamse Universiteiten: Tijd om het Beleid bij te Sturen? [Rates of Success at Flemish Universities: Time to Adjust Policy?]. Leuven, Belgium: VIVES, KU Leuven.
19.
Deil-AmenReginaDeLucaStephanie. 2010. “The Underserved Third: How Our Educational Structures Populate an Educational Underclass.” Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk15(1–2):27–50.
20.
Deil-AmenReginaRosenbaumJames E.2002. “The Unintended Consequences of Stigma-free Remediation.” Sociology of Education75(3):249–68.
21.
DittonHartmutKrüskenJanSchauenbergMagdalena. 2005. “Bildungsungleichheit: Der Beitrag von Familie und Schule” [Educational Disparities and the Contribution of Family and School]. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft8(2):285–304.
22.
DominaThurstonConleyAnneMarieFarkasGeorge. 2011. “The Link between Educational Expectations and Effort in the College-for-all Era.” Sociology of Education84(2):93–112.
23.
DornbuschSanford M.1994. Off the Track. Presidential address to the Society for Research on Adolescence, San Diego, CA.
24.
DurkheimEmile. 1922. Education et Sociologie [Education and Sociology]. Paris, France: Les Presses Universitaires de France.
25.
Duru-BellatMarie. 2002. Les Inégalités Sociales à l’École: Genèse et Mythe [Social Inequalities in School: Genesis and Myth]. Paris, France: Presses Universitaires de France.
26.
EdwardsRichard C.1976. “Individual Traits and Organizational Incentives: What Makes a ‘Good’ Worker?”The Journal of Human Resources11(1):51–68.
27.
European Commission. 2014. Mapping and Analysing Bottleneck Vacancies in EU Labour Markets. Brussels, Belgium: European Commission.
28.
FellerRich W.2003. “Aligning School Counseling, the Changing Workplace, and Career Development Assumptions.” Professional School Counseling6(4):262–71.
29.
Flemish Department of Education. 2008. The Flemish Educational Landscape in a Nutshell. Brussels, Belgium: Die Keure.
30.
Flemish Department of Education. 2009. Onderwijsspiegel Schooljaar 2008–2009, Verslag over de Toestand van het Onderwijs [Education Mirror School Year 2008–2009, Report on the State of Education]. Brussels, Belgium: Flemish Department of Education, School Inspection.
31.
GamoranAdam. 1986. “Instructional and Institutional Effects of Ability Grouping.” Sociology of Education59(4):185–98.
32.
GamoranAdam. 2010. “Tracking and Inequality: New Directions for Research and Practice.” In The Routledge International Handbook of the Sociology of Education, edited by AppleMichael W.BallStephen J.GandinLuis A., 213–228. London, England: Routledge.
33.
GanzeboomHarry B. G.2010. “Occupational Status Measures for the New International Standard Classification of Occupations ISCO-08; with a Discussion of the New Classification.” Retrieved December 23, 2017 (http://www.harryganzeboom.nl/isol/isol2010c2-ganzeboom.pdf).
34.
GlassRonald DavidNygreenKysa. 2011. “Class, Race, and the Discourse of ‘College for All.’ A Response to ‘Schooling for Democracy.’”Democracy and Education19(1):7.
35.
GoyetteKimberly A.2008. “College for Some to College for All: Social Background, Occupational Expectations, and Educational Expectations over Time.” Social Science Research37(2):461–84.
36.
HallinanMaureen T.1994. “Tracking: From Theory to Practice.” Sociology of Education67(2):79–84.
37.
HansonSandra L.1994. “Lost Talent: Unrealized Educational Aspirations and Expectations among U.S. Youths.” Sociology of Education67(3):159–83.
38.
HargreavesDavid H.1967. Social Relations in a Secondary School. London, England: C. Tinling.
39.
HolmSture. 1979. “A Simple Sequentially Rejective Multiple Test Procedure.” Scandinavian Journal of Statistics6(2):65–70.
40.
HornDaniel. 2009. “Age of Selection Counts: A Cross-country Analysis of Educational Institutions.” Educational Research and Evaluation: An International Journal on Theory and Practice15(4):343–66.
41.
International Study of City Youth “About ISCY.” Accessed May 1, 2017. (http://www.iscy.org).
42.
JenkinsStephen P.MicklewrightJohnSchnepfSylke V.2008. “Social Segregation in Secondary Schools: How Does England Compare with Other Countries.” Oxford Review of Education4(1):21–37.
43.
KariyaTakehikoRosenbaumJames E.1987. “Self-selection in Japanese Junior High Schools: A Longitudinal Study of Students’ Educational Plans.” Sociology of Education60(3):168–80.
44.
KerckhoffAlan C.1976. “The Status Attainment Process: Socialization or Allocation?”Social Forces55(2):368–81.
45.
KerckhoffAlan C.1977. “The Realism of Educational Ambitions in England and the United States.” American Sociological Review42(4):563–71.
46.
KerckhoffAlan C.2003. “From Student to Worker.” In Handbook of the Life Course, edited by MortimerJeylan T.ShanahanMichael J., 251–267. New York: Springer Science & Business Media.
47.
LaceyColin. 1970. Hightown Grammar. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press.
48.
LeTendreGerald K.HoferBarbara K.ShimizuHidetada. 2003. “What Is Tracking? Cultural Expectations in the United States, Germany, and Japan.” American Educational Research Journal40(1):43–89.
49.
LucasSamuel R.1999. Tracking Inequality: Stratification and Mobility in American High Schools. New York: Teachers’ College Press.
50.
LucasSamuel R.BerendsMark. 2002. “Sociodemographic Diversity, Correlated Achievement, and De Facto Tracking.” Sociology of Education75(4):328–48.
51.
LucasSamuel R.GoodAaron D.2001. “Race, Class, and Tournament Track Mobility.” Sociology of Education74(2):139–56.
52.
MelloZena R.2009. “Racial/Ethnic Group and Socioeconomic Status Variation in Educational and Occupational Expectations from Adolescence to Adulthood.” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology30(4):494–504.
53.
MonsNathalie. 2007. Les nouvelles politiques éducatives: la France fait-elle les bons choix?Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
OakesJeannieGamoranAdamPageReba N.1992. “Curriculum Differentiation: Opportunities, Outcomes, and Meanings.” In The Handbook of Research on Curriculum, edited by JacksonPhilip W., 570–607. New York: Macmillan.
56.
ParsonsTalcott. 1959. “The School Class as a Social System: Some of Its Functions in American Society.” Harvard Educational Review29(4):297–318.
57.
PescharJulesWesselinghAnton. 2001. Onderwijssociologie [Sociology of Education]. Groningen, The Netherlands: Wolters Noordhoff.
58.
PoelmansLienVan RompaeyAnton. 2009. “Detecting and Modelling Spatial Patterns of Urban Sprawl in Highly Fragmented Areas: A Case Study in the Flanders–Brussels Region.” Landscape and Urban Planning93:10–19.
59.
ReynoldsJohn R.BairdCharlie L.2010. “Is There a Downside to Shooting for the Stars? Unrealized Educational Expectations and Symptoms of Depression.” American Sociological Review75(1):151–72.
60.
ReynoldsJohn R.StewartMichaelMacdonaldRyanSischoLacey. 2006. “Have Adolescents Become Too Ambitious? High School Seniors’ Educational and Occupational Plans, 1976 to 2000.” Social Problems53(2):186–206.
61.
RosenbaumJames E.1976. Making Inequality: The Hidden Curriculum of High School Tracking. New York: Wiley.
62.
RosenbaumJames E.2001. Beyond College for All: Career Paths for the Forgotten Half. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
63.
RosenbaumJames E.MillerShazia RafiullahKreiMelinda Scott. 1996. “Gatekeeping in an Era of More Open Gates: High School Counselors’ Views of Their Influence on Students’ College Plans.” American Journal of Education104(4):257–79.
64.
SchneiderBarbara L.StevensonDavid. 1999. The Ambitious Generation: America’s Teenagers, Motivated but Directionless. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
65.
SchoonIngrid. 2001. “Teenage Job Aspirations and Career Attainment in Adulthood: A 17-year Follow-up Study of Teenagers Who Aspired to Become Scientists, Health Professionals, or Engineers.” International Journal of Behavioral Development25(2):124–32.
66.
SchoonIngridParsonsSamantha. 2002. “Teenage Aspirations for Future Careers and Occupational Outcomes.” Journal of Vocational Behavior60(2):262–88.
67.
SewellWilliam H.HallerArchibald O.PortesAlejandro. 1969. “The Educational and Early Occupational Attainment Process.” American Sociological Review34(1):82–92.
68.
SewellWilliam H.HauserRobert M.SpringerKristen W.HauserTaissa S.2003. “As We Age: A Review of the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study, 1957–2001.” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility20:3–111.
69.
ShavitYossiMüllerWalter. 2000. “Vocational secondary education. Where diversion and where safety net?”European Societies2(1):29–50.
70.
St. ClairRalphKintreaKeithHoustonMuir. 2013. “Silver Bullet or Red Herring? New Evidence on the Place of Aspirations in Education.” Oxford Review of Education39(6):719–38.
71.
StevensPeter A. J.VermeerschHans. 2010. “Streaming in Flemish Secondary Schools: Exploring Teachers’ Perceptions of and Adaptations to Students in Different Streams.” Oxford Review of Education36(3):267–84.
72.
TimmermanChristineHermansPhilipHoornaertJohan, eds. 2002. Allochtone jongeren in het onderwijs: een multidisciplinair perspectief [Allochtonous youngsters in education: a multidisciplinary perspective], Leuven/Apeldoorn: Garant.
73.
TrautweinUlrichLüdtkeOliverMarshHerbert W.KöllerOlafBaumertJürgen. 2006. “Tracking, Grading, and Student Motivation: Using Group Composition and Status to Predict Self-concept and Interest in Ninth-grade Mathematics.” Journal of Educational Psychology98(4):788–806.
74.
Van de gaerEvaPustjensHeidiVan DammeJanDe MunterAgnes. 2006. “Tracking and the Effects of School-related Attitudes on the Language Achievement of Boys and Girls.” British Journal of Sociology of Education27(3):293–309.
75.
Van de WerfhorstHerman G.2014. “Changing Societies and Four Tasks of Schooling: Challenges for Strongly Differentiated Educational Systems.” International Review of Education60(1):123–44.
76.
Van PraagLoreBooneSimonStevensPeter A.J.Van HoutteMieke. 2013. “The paradox of the cascade system in Belgium: When homogeneous grouping leads to more heterogeneity in lower status tracks.” in Right on track? An explorative study of ethnic minorities’ success in Flemish secondary education, ed. Van PraagL. Ghent: Department of Sociology.
77.
Van HoutteMieke. 2004. “Tracking Effects on School Achievement: A Quantitative Explanation in Terms of the Academic Culture of School Staff.”American Journal of Education110(4):354–88.
78.
Van HoutteMieke. 2006. “Study Involvement of Academic and Vocational Students: Does Between-School Tracking Sharpen the Difference?”Journal of Curriculum Studies38(3):273–292.
79.
Van HoutteMStevensPeter A.J.2009. School type and academic culture: evidence for the differentiation–polarization theory. American Educational Research Journal46(4):943–973.
80.
VanfossenBeth E.JonesJames D.SpadeJoan Z.1987. “Curriculum Tracking and Status Maintenance.” Sociology of Education60(2):104–22.
81.
VerhoevenJefDomLeen. 2002. Flemish Eurydice Report 2001: Education Policy and Education Organisation in Flanders. Brussels, Belgium: Ministry of the Flemish Community, Department of Education, Policy Coordination Division.
82.
WroschCarstenMillerGregory E.ScheierMichael F.de PontetStephanie Brun. 2007. “Giving Up on Unattainable Goals: Benefits for Health?”Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin33(2):251–65.
