To focus on posttraumatic stress symptoms after childhood diseases such as cancer, organ transplantation, and severe burns.
Methods:
Differential diagnoses, risk factors, and treatment aspects (psychological and pharmacological) are discussed.
Results:
The concept of adjustment problems in chronic or severe illnesses is widely used in pediatrics. Many aspects of severe childhood diseases are traumatic, as defined by the DSM-IV: severe illnesses are life-threatening, medical procedures threaten the child's physical integrity, and disorganized behaviour periods are common.
Conclusion:
This concept, which remains insufficiently investigated, is a promising area of investigation for prospective and prevention studies.
LavigneJVFaier-RoumanJ.Psychological adjustment to pediatric physical disorders: A meta-analysis. J Pediatr Psychol1993;17:133–57.
2.
HauserST. The study of families and chronic illness: Ways of coping and interacting. In: BradyGHSigelIE, editors. Methods of family research. Volume 2, Clinical populations. Hillsdale (NJ): Erlbaum; 1990. p 56–86.
3.
LazarusRS. Emotion and adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press; 1991.
4.
ThompsonRJJrGustafsonKEHamlettKWSpockA.Psychosocial adjustment of children with cystic fibrosis: The role of child cognitive processes and maternal adjustment. J Pediatr Psychol1992;17:741–55.
5.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th edition. Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
6.
ScherringaMSZeanahCHDrellMJLarrieuJA. Two approches to the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder in infancy and early childhood. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry1995;34:191–200.
7.
TerrLC. Childhood traumas: An outline and overview. Am J Psychiatry1991;148;1:10–20.
8.
PelcovitzDKaplanS.Post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America1996;5:449–69.
9.
PynoosRCFrederickCNaderKArroyoWSteinbergAEthS, and others. Life threat and posttraumatic stress in school-age children. Arch Gen Psychiatry1987;44:1057–63.
10.
van der KolkBA. Psychological trauma. Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Press; 1987.
11.
LyonsJA. Posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents: A review of the literature. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics1987;8:349–56.
12.
PerrySDifedeJMusngiGFrancesAJJacobsbergL.Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder after burn injury. Am J Psychiatry1992;149:931–5.
13.
BlakeneyPMeyerWMoorePMurphyLBroemelingLRobsonM, and others. Psychosocial sequelae of pediatric burns involving 80% or greater total body surface area. J Burn Care Rehabil1993;14:684–9.
14.
KravitzMMcCoyBJTompkinsDMDalyWMulliganJMcCauleyRL, and others. Sleep disorders in children after burn injury. J Burn Care Rehabil1993;14:83–90.
15.
StoddardFJNormanDKMurphyJMBeardsleeWR. Psychiatric outcome of burned children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry1989;28:589–95.
16.
MayouRBryantBDuthieR.Psychiatric consequences of road traffic accidents. BMJ1993;307:647–51.
17.
Pot-MeesCC. The psychosocial effects of bone marrow transplantation in children. Delft (Netherlands): Eburon; 1989.
18.
WintgensABoileauBRobaeyP.Le penser et le dire autour du syndrome de stress post-traumatique en pdopsychiatrie. PRISME1996;6:404–17.
19.
BussingRHalfonNBenjaminBWellsKB. Prevalence of behavior problems in US children with asthma. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med1995;149:565–72.
20.
WamboldtMZWamboldtFS. Psychosocial aspects of severe asthma in children. In: SzeflerSJLeungDYM, editors. Severe asthma: Pathogenesis and clinical management. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1995. p 465–95.
21.
BaronCWintgensALevasseurCMarcotteJERobaeyP.Prevalence of anxiety disorders in adolescent asthmatics. Canadian Child Psychiatric Review1997;6:18–22.
22.
KoocherGO'MalleyJE. The Damocles syndrome: Psychosocial consequences of surviving childhood cancer. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1981.
23.
NirY.Posttraumatic stress disorder in children with cancer. In: EthSPynoosRS, editors. Posttraumatic stress disorder in children. Progress in psychiatry. Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Press; 1985. p 121–32.
24.
AlterCLPelcovitzDAxelrodAGoldenbergBSeptimusAHarrisH, and others. The identification of PTSD in cancer survivors. In: Annual Meeting of the Academy of Psychosomatic Medicine; San Diego, CA; 1992 Oct.
25.
StuberMLChristakisDAHouskampBKazakA.Post trauma symptoms in childhood leukemia survivors and their parents. Psychosomatics1996;37:254–61.
26.
StuberMLMeeskeKGonzalezSHouskampBMPynoosR.Post-traumatic stress after childhood cancer I: The role of appraisal. Psycho-oncology1994;3:305–12.
27.
StuberMGonzalezSMeeskeKGuthrieDHouskampBMPynoosR, and others. Post-traumatic stress after childhood cancer II: A family model. Psycho-oncology1994;3:313–9.
28.
SlaterJA. Psychiatric aspects of organ transplantation in children and adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 1994;3:557–98.
29.
Pot-MeesCCZeitlinH.Psychosocial consequences of bone marrow transplantation in children: A preliminary communication. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology1987;5(2):73–81.
30.
StuberMNaderKYasudaPPynoosRSCohenS.Stress responses after pediatric bone marrow transplantation: Preliminary results of a prospective longitudinal study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry1991;30:952–7.
31.
AndrykowskiMA. Psychiatric and psychosocial aspects of bone marrow transplantation. Psychosomatics1994;35:13–24.
32.
PynoosRS. Post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. In: GarfinkelBCarlsonGWellerE, editors. Psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1990. p 48–63.
33.
SchwarzEDPerryBD. The post-traumatic response in children and adolescents. Psychiatr Clin North Am1994;17:311–26.
34.
LoniganCJShannonMPTaylorCMFinchAJSalleeFR. Children exposed to disaster, II: Risk factors for the development of post-traumatic symptomatology. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry1994;33:94–105.
35.
GreenBLKorolMGraceMCVaryMGLeonardACGleserGC, and others. Children and disaster: Age, gender, and parental effects on PTSD symptoms. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry1991;30:945–51.
36.
UdwinO.Annotation: Children's reaction to traumatic events. J Child Psychol Psychiatry1993;34:115–27.
37.
EarlsFSmithEReichWJungKG. Investigating psychopathological consequences of a disaster in children: A pilot study incorporating a structured diagnostic interview. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry1988;27:90–5.
38.
BrownRTKaslowNJMadan-SwainADoepkeKJSexsonSBHillLJ. Parental psychopathology and children's adjustment to leukemia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry1993;32:554–61.
39.
YehudaR.Stress and glucocorticoid [letter]. Science1997;275:1662.
40.
WaberDPTarbellNJFaircloughDAtmoreKCastroRIsquithP, and others. Cognitive sequelae of treatment in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: Cranial radiation requires an accomplice. J Clin Oncol1995;13:2490–6.
41.
BenderBGLernerJAPolandJE. Association between corticosteroids and psychologic change in hospitalized asthmatic children. Ann Allergy1991; 66:414–9.
42.
PynoosRSNaderK.Issues in the treatment of posttraumatic stress in children and adolescents. In: WilsonJPRaphaelB, editors. International handbook of traumatic stress syndromes. New York: Plenum; 1993. p 535–50.
43.
Amaya-JacksonLMarchJS. Post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Clinics of North America1993;2:639–54.
44.
van der KolkBA. The body keeps the score: Memory and the evolving psychobiology of posttraumatic stress. Harvard Review of Psychiatry1994;1:253–65.
