The participation and collective effervescence in crowd events is a perennial issue in social sciences, however it has scarcely been researched from the point of view of the attendees. This article helps to fill the gap with an exploratory descriptive study based on a sample of 1,553 respondents from 40 countries. The authors analyse seven different types of events and also describe the various participation levels, whether people go there alone or in company, and their reasons for attending. Globally, the results show several specific patterns: (a) the majority of the participants often go to collective events, but different events have different levels of participation; (b) people rarely go alone to collective events, but the company depends on the type of event; (c) although the results show it is not necessary to like the event to trigger participation, people have different reasons for going to different events. The article concludes with a cluster analysis that details the links between attendance, company, and reasons to attend, according to the socio-demographic factors.
BarrowsS (1981) Distorting Mirrors: Visions of the Crowd in Late Nineteenth-Century France. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
2.
BorchC (2013) The Politics of Crowds: An Alternative History of Sociology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3.
CareyJ (1992) The Intellectuals and the Masses: Pride and Prejudice among the Literary Intelligentsia, 1880–1939. London: Faber and Faber.
4.
Cariton-FordSL (1992) Charisma, ritual, collective effervescence, and self-esteem. The Sociological Quarterly33(3): 365–387.
5.
CollinsR (1994[1985]) Four Sociological Traditions. New York: Oxford University Press.
6.
Costa-LopesRPereiraCR (2011) O Impacto da Norma Anti-Racista nas Respostas a Inquéritos sobre Preconceito. In AntónioJHCPolicarpoV (eds) Os Imigrantes e a Imigração aos Olhos dos Portugueses: Manifestações de preconceito e perspectivas sobre a inserção de imigrantes. Lisbon: Universidade Católica Portuguesa/Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 169–187.
7.
CrossGWaltonJK (2005) The Playful Crowd: Pleasure Places in the Twentieth Century. New York: Columbia University Press.
8.
DebordG (2013[1967]) Society of the Spectacle. London: Notting Hill Editions.
9.
DraperS (2014) Effervescence and solidarity in religious organizations. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion53(2): 229–248.
10.
DruryJStottC (2013) Crowds in the 21st Century. Perspectives from contemporary social science. London: Routledge.
11.
DurkheimE (1973[1914]) The dualism of human nature and its social conditions. In: DurkheimE (ed.) On Morality and Society. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 149–163.
12.
DurkheimE (2001[1912]) The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
13.
DurkheimE (2014[1893]) The Division of Labour in Society. New York: Free Press.
14.
EsteveM (2003) The Aesthetics and Politics of the Crowd in American Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
15.
FalassiA (1987) Festival: Definition and morphology. In FalassiA (ed.) Time out of Time: Essays on the Festival. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1–10.
16.
GetzD (2007) Event Studies. Theory, Research and Policy for Planned Events. Amsterdam & London: Elsevier.
17.
GiorgiLSassatelliMDelantyG (2011) Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere. London: Routledge.
18.
GoodwinJJasperJMPollettaF (2001) Passionate Politics. Emotions and Social Movements. Chicago/London: The University of Chicago Press.
19.
HarrisonM (1988) Crowds and History. Mass Phenomena in English Towns, 1790–1835. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
20.
HopkinsNStephenDReicherSDet al. (2016) Explaining effervescence: Investigating the relationship between shared social identity and positive experience in crowds. Cognition and Emotion30(1): 20–32.
21.
HorneJManzenreiterW (2006). An Introduction to the sociology of sports mega-events. The Sociological Review54(s2): 1–24.
22.
JonssonS (2013) Crowds and Democracy: The Idea and Image of the Masses from Revolution to Fascism. New York: Columbia University Press.
23.
KrautROlsonJBanajiMet al. (2004). Psychological research online: Report of Board of Scientific Affairs’ Advisory Group on the Conduct of Research on the Internet. American Psychologist59(2): 105–117.
24.
LaschC (1979) The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations. New York: Norton.
25.
Le BonG (1998[1895]) Psychologie des foules. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
26.
MariotN (2001) Les formes élémentaires de l’effervescence collective, ou l’état d’esprit prêté aux foules. Revue française de science politique51(5): 707–738.
27.
MariotN (2006) Bains de foule. Les voyages présidentiels en province, 1888–2002. Paris: Belin.
28.
MayJ (2010) Pilgrims on Tour: Collective Effervescence in Concerts (doctoral thesis). Michigan, MI: University of Michigan.
29.
MillarF (2002[1998]) The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic. (Jerome Lectures, 22). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
30.
MooiESarstedtM (2011) A Concise Guide to Market Research: The Process, Data, and Methods Using IBM SPPS Statistics. Berlin: Springer.
31.
MorinE (1998) Sociologia. A Sociologia do microssocial ao macroplanetário. Portugal: Publicações Europa-América.
32.
NovelliDDruryJReicherSStottC (2013) Crowdedness mediates the effect of social identification on positive emotion in a crowd: A survey of two crowd events. PLoS ONE8(11). Available at: e78983. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0078983 (accessed 28 March 2017).
33.
OlavesonT (2001) Collective effervescence and communitas: Processual models of ritual and society in Emile Durkheim and Victor Turner. Dialectical Anthropology26(2): 89–124.
34.
PickeringWSF (1984) Durkheim’s Sociology of Religion: Themes and Theories. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
35.
PlotzJ (2000) The Crowd: British Literature and Public Politics. Berkeley, LA: University of California Press.
36.
PutnamR D (2000) Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon & Schuster.
37.
RudéG (1967[1959]) The Crowd in the French Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
38.
RyanWWollanG (2013) Festivals, landscapes, and aesthetic engagement: A phenomenological approach to four Norwegian festivals. Norwegian Journal of Geography 67(2). Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00291951.2013.784352 (accessed 26 March 2017).
39.
SchnappJTTiewsM (eds) (2006) Crowds. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
40.
SchorN (1978) Zola’s Crowds. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
41.
SennettR (2006) The Culture of the New Capitalism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
42.
ShillingC (2005) Embodiment, emotions, and the foundations of social order: Durkheim enduring contribution. In: AlexanderJSmithP (eds) The Cambridge Companion to Durkheim. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 211–238.
43.
SilvaJ (2013) Coming Up Short: Working-Class Adulthood in an Age of Uncertainty. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
44.
SmithA (2016) Events in the City: Using Public Spaces as Event Venues. London: Routledge.
45.
TanPNSteinbachMKumarV (2006). Introduction To Data Mining. London: Pearson Education.
46.
TardeG (1901) L’opinion et la foule. Paris: Félix Alcan.
47.
TaylorC (2007) A Secular Age. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
48.
ThompsonEP (1971) The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century. Past and Present50(1): 76–136.
49.
TorresEC (2013) A Multidão e a Televisão. Representações Contemporâneas da Efervescência Colectiva. Lisbon: UCE.
50.
TurnerV (1995[1969]) The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-structure. New York: AldineTransaction.
51.
van GennepA (1977[1909]) The Rites of Passage. London: Routledge.
52.
van GinnekenJ (1992) Crowds, Psychology, & Politics, 1871–1899. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
