Seventeenth century Dutch genre painting played a major role in the promotion of the pursuit of family and educational virtues. Packing moralistic messages in fine paintings was considered as a very effective moralistic communication policy in a culture in which sending such moralising messages was very popular. The flourishing art market supplied great numbers of moralising paintings and drawings on education and domestic virtues, so contributing to the reconciliation of the existing tensions, or, in the words of Simon Schama, embarrassment between beauty and the promoted virtues of frugality and simplicity. A broad middle class created its own private surrounding in which morality and enjoying the beauty of moralising on the family and parenting went together, as is made clear by the analysis of a series of representative images. Dutch parents, moralists, and painters knew the power of beauty in moralising on the family.
On art production in seventeenth-century Holland, see A. M. van der Woude, "De schilderijenproductie in Holland tijdens de Republiek," in Aards geluk: De Nederlanders en hun spullen van 1550 tot 1850, ed. A. Schuurman, J. de Vries, and A. van der Woude (Amsterdam: Balans, 1997), 223-58.
2.
S. Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age (London: William Collins, 1987); cf. J. J. H. Dekker and L. F. Groenendijk, "The Republic of God or the Republic of Children? Childhood and Child-rearing after the Reformation: An Appraisal of Simon Schama's Thesis about the Uniqueness of the Dutch Case," Oxford Review of Education 17 (1991): 317-35. On moral education, see R. Barrow, An Introduction to Moral Philosophy and Moral Education (London: Routledge, 2007); D. Carr, Educating the Virtues: An essay on the Philosophical Psychology of Moral Development and Education (London and New York: Routledge, 1991); D. Carr and J. Steutel, eds., Virtue Ethics and Moral Education (London and New York: Routledge, 1999).
3.
D. MacCulloch, Reformation: Europe's House Divided 1490-1700 (London: Allen Lane / Penguin Books, 2003); cf. S. Ozment's classic book on Reformation and the family, When Fathers Ruled: Family Life in Reformation Europe ( Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
4.
See D. Julia, "L'enfance aux débuts de l'époque moderne," in Histoire de l'enfance, Tome I, De l'antiquité au xvii siècle, ed. E. Becchi and D. Julia (Paris: Seuil, 1998), 286-373, 312-15, on Protestant and Catholic catechisms for children, including those by Martin Luther (Der kleine Katechismus, 1529), Jean Calvin (Formulaire d'instruire les enfants en la Chrestienté, 1541), and for the Catholics, Petrus Canisius (Parvus Catechismus Catholicorum, 1558).
5.
MacCulloch, Reformation, 367, 370.
6.
MacCulloch, Reformation, 371. For an overall view on the Dutch Republic, see J. I. Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477-1806 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995); and W. Th. M. Frijhoff and M. Spies, 1650: Bevochten eendracht (The Hague: SDU, 1999); introductions are M. Prak, Gouden Eeuw: Het raadsel van de Republiek (Nijmegen, 2002); and A. Th. van Deursen, De last van veel geluk: De geschiedenis van Nederland, 1555-1702 (Amsterdam: Bert Bakker, 2004); on the lower strata and their culture, see A. Th. van Deursen, Mensen van klein vermogen: Het `kopergeld' van de Gouden Eeuw (Amsterdam: Bert Bakker, 19922); on economic developments, see J. de Vries and A. van der Woude, Nederland 1500-1815: De eerste ronde van moderne economische groei (Amsterdam: Balans, 1995); a classic on the cultural history of the Republic is Johan Nederland's Beschaving in de zeventiende eeuw: Een Schets (Groningen, 1976; or. 1941; English translation: Dutch Civilisation in the Seventeenth Century: And Other Essays [New York: Harper & Row, 1968]); on the dominant bourgeois character of the Republic, see H. W. Blom, "Burger en Belang: Pieter de la Court over de politieke betekenis van burgers," in Burger, ed. J. Kloek and K. Tilmans (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2002).
7.
MacCulloch, Reformation, 370, 371.
8.
J. Spaans, "Reform in the Low Countries," in A Companion to the Reformation World, ed. R. Po-chia Hsia (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004 ), 118-34, 130-31.
9.
D. Colas, Civil Society and Fanaticism: Conjoined Histories (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997), quoted by MacCulloch, Reformation, 373.
10.
The exception to the rule was the eastern, sparsely populated part of the country, where families were more numerous and more complex, living together with other family members than just parents and children. See de Vries and van der Woude, Nederland 1500-1815, 97; A. M. van der Woude, "Demografische ontwikkeling van de Noordelijke Nederlanden 1500-1800," in Algemene Geschiedenis der Nederlanden, 5, ed. J. Craeybeckx, H. de Schepper, D. J. Roorda, and A. M. van der Woude (Haarlem: Fibula-Van Dishoeck, 1980), 102-68, 146-47; A. M. van der Woude, "Variations in the Size and Structure of the Household in the United Provinces of the Netherlands in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries," in Household and Family in Past Time, ed. P. Laslett (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 299-318; on breastfeeding, see L. F. Groenendijk, "Piëtisten en borstvoeding," Pedagogisch Tijdschrift / Forum voor Opvoedkunde1 (1976): 583-90; for a European perspective, see V. A. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles and Babies: A History of Infant Feeding (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1986); and V. A. Fildes, Wet Nursing: A History from Antiquity to the Present (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988); cf. van Deursen, Mensen van klein vermogen, 113. On schooling and literacy, see P. Th. F. M. Boekholt and E. P. de Booy, Geschiedenis van de school in Nederland vanaf de middeleeuwen tot aan de huidige tijd (Assen/Maastricht: Van Gorcum, 1987), 17-21.
11.
See, on the strategy of moralizing by pleasure, J. J. H. Dekker, "Moral Literacy: The Pleasure of Learning How to Become Decent Adults and Good Parents in the Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century," Paedagogica Historica 44, no. 1-2 (2008): 137-51.
12.
S. Tuttle Ross, "Understanding Propaganda: The Epistemic Merit Model and Its Application to Art," Journal of Aesthetic Education36, no. 1 (2002): 16-30, 16.
13.
F. C. Bartlett, The Aims of Political Propaganda (Octagon: New York, 1940), quoted by Tuttle Ross, "Understanding Propaganda," 18.
14.
The classic study on the Dutch art market is J. M. Montias, Artists and Artisans in Delft: A Socio-Economic Study of the Seventeenth Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982). See, on the art market and the individual buyer, J. M. Montias, Art and Auction in 17th Century Amsterdam (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2002), 242.
15.
Frijhoff and Spies, 1650, 496, 637; de Vries and van der Woude, Nederland 1500-1815, 147, 701; E. de Jongh and G. Luijten, Mirror of Everyday Life: Genreprints in the Netherlands 1550-1700 (Amsterdam/Ghent: Rijksmuseum / Snoeck-Ducaju and Zoon, 1986).
16.
Israel, The Dutch Republic, 48, 98, 548, 873; de Vries and van der Woude, Nederland 1500-1815, 404; van der Woude, "De schilderijenproductie," 239.
17.
C.E.B. Coleman , "Advertising: Art as Society's Mirror," Art Education51, no. 3 (1998): 25-40.
18.
N. C. M. Brown, "The Meaning of Transfer in the Practices of Arts Education," Studies in Art Education 43, no. 1 (2001): 83-102, 83, 85. N. Nissley emphasizes the power of aesthetic ways of knowing for managers, for "pictures really are worth a thousand words." According to B. Stafford, visual competence is becoming the more important nowadays because "we are moving from a script-based to an image-based marketplace." See N. Nissley, "Arts-based Learning in Management Education," in Rethinking Management Education for the 21st Century, ed. Ch. Wankel and R. DeFillippi (Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, 2002), 27-61, 27, 29, 45. The Dutch Republic of the seventeenth century was already, in many aspects, such an image-based marketplace in which visual competence was high among many citizens. Cf. S. Alpers, The Art of Describing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983).
19.
Ph. Ariès, L'enfant et la vie familiale sous l'ancien régime (Paris: Librairie Plon, 1960; translated as Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life [New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962]). Cf. Dekker and Groenendijk, "The Republic of God."
20.
From a biological perspective, J. B. Bedaux, "From Normal to Supranormal: Observations on Realism and Idealism from a Biological Perspective," in Sociobiology and the Arts, ed. J. B. Bedaux and B. Cooke (Amsterdam/Atlanta: Editions Rodopi, 1999), 99-128, emphasizes continuity and structure. Cf. J. B. Bedaux, "Introduction," in Pride and Joy: Children's Portraits in the Netherlands 1500-1700, ed. J. B. Bedaux and R. E. O. Ekkart (Gent/Amsterdam/New York: Ludion and Abrams, 2000), 11-31, 12-13; for an overview of the debate, see Dekker and Groenendijk, "The Republic of God," 317-35; R. Dekker, Children, Memory and Autobiography in Holland: From the Golden Age to Romanticism (London: Macmillan, 1999); and J. J. H. Dekker, Het verlangen naar opvoeden: Over de groei van de pedagogische ruimte in Nederland sinds de Gouden Eeuw tot omstreeks 1900 (Amsterdam: Bert Bakker, 2006), 21-23. Cf., on the child in the Middle Ages, A. Giallongo, Il Bambino Medievale (Bari: Editioni Dedalo, 1990).
21.
J. J. H. Dekker, L. F. Groenendijk, and J. Verberckmoes, "Proudly Raising Vulnerable Youngsters: The Scope for Education in the Netherlands," in Pride and Joy: Children's Portraits in the Netherlands 1500-1700, ed. J. B. Bedaux and R. E. O. Ekkart (Gent/Amsterdam/New York: Ludion and Abrams, 2000), 43-60, 51. Cf., on Dutch marriage policy and family communication by letters and other personal documents, B. B. Roberts, "Dutch Affective Parent-Child Relations in the Eighteenth Century: Catharina Backer and Her Parents," History of Education Society Bulletin 56 (1995): 17-26; B. B. Roberts, "Fatherhood in Eighteenth-century Holland: The van der Muelen Brothers," Journal of Family History 21 (1996): 218-28; B. B. Roberts, Through the Keyhole: Dutch Child-rearing Practices in the 17th and 18th Century: Three Urban Elite Families (Hilversum: Verloren, 1998); L. Kooijmans, Vriendschap en de kunst van het overleven in de zeventiende en achttiende eeuw (Amsterdam: Bert Bakker, 1997), 220-38. On family policy of the influential Huygens family, see Dekker, Het verlangen, 84-85, 105-111. On Germany, see S. Ozment, Ancestors, the Loving Family in Old Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001).
22.
Dekker et al., "Proudly Raising Vulnerable Youngsters," 51. From ca. 1650, religiously mixed marriages were the exception; see Frijhoff and Spies, 1650, 358. Cf. H. Knippenberg, De Religieuze Kaart van Nederland: Omvang en geografische spreiding van de godsdienstige gezindten vanaf de Reformatie tot heden (Assen/Maastricht: Van Gorcum, 1992), 9-62.
23.
J. Cats, Huwelijk, ed. A. A. Snekker and B. Thijs (Amsterdam: Querido, 1993), 134. See, for iconographic examples of this popular theme, de Jongh and Luijten, Mirror, 80-84; influential were the engravings by Jacob Goltzius.
24.
Jan Steen, The Garden Party, 1677, oil on canvas, 67 × 88 cm (Belgium: Private collection), H. Perry Chapman, W. Th. Kloek, and A. K. Wheelock Jr., eds., Jan Steen: Painter and Storyteller (Amsterdam/Washington, DC: Rijksmuseum / National Gallery of Art, 1996), 257-59. For the interpretation of the orange, see J. B. Bedaux, The Reality of Symbols: Studies in the Iconology of Netherlandish Art 1400-1800 (Gravenhage/Maarssen: Gary Schwarz / SDU, 1990), 48. On Steen, see Frijhoff and Spies, 1650, 515; Marten Jan Bok, "Het leven van Jan Steen," in Chapman et al., Jan Steen, 25-37; and M. Westermann, "Steens komische ficties," in Chapman et al., Jan Steen, 53-67, 55.
25.
Westermann, "Steens komische ficties," 64-65; E. de Jongh, "Jan Steen, dichtbij en toch veraf," in Chapman et al., Jan Steen, 39-51, 50. Cf. the emblem book by J. Cats, Sinne- en minnebeelden [Images of Passions and Love], ed. H. Luijten, Jacob Cats Sinne- en minnebeelden, 3 vol. (The Hague: Constantijn Huygens Instituut, 1996), vol. 2, 56-75, 79-88. In this emblem book, probably his most important and popular one, Cats used the ars amatoria, in its classical form an independent genre, for a moralistic and didactic mission. After describing erotic behavior in the first part of each emblem and the risks of losing virginity in the second one, Cats gives the solution in the third and final part. In following the three Christian and the four cardinal virtues, the way to God is open. In Diderik van Leyden and Alida Paets's Children, 1679, oil on canvas, 178,3 × 156,3 cm (Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum) by Daniël Mytens II (1644-1688), these virtues are related to education in an allegorical portrait with each child representing a specific virtue according to the well-known rules by Cesare Ripa's Iconologia (New York: Garland, 1976; photomechanical reprint of the original edition from Padua, 1611); see Bedaux and Ekkart, Pride and Joy, 286-88. In 1644, the Dutch translation was published as Iconologia, of uytbeeldingen des verstands (Amsterdam: Dirck Pietersz Pers, 1644).
26.
Schama, The Embarrassment, 481-61; Dekker and Groenendijk, "The Republic of God"; J. J. H. Dekker, "A Republic of Educators: Educational Messages in Seventeenth-Century Dutch Genre Painting," History of Education Quarterly 36, no. 2 (1996): 163-90.
27.
See further on this painting Dekker, "Republic of Educators," 167-70; Rembrandt van Rijn, Portrait of a Family, c. 1668, oil on canvas, 126 × 167 cm (Braunschweig: Hertzog Anton Ulrich-Museum). Cf. S. Schama, Rembrandt's Eyes (London: Allen Lane / Penguin Press, 1999), 663-64; Frijhoff and Spies, 1650, 519-21; Bedaux, Reality of Symbols, 71-108; Bedaux, "Introduction," 21.
28.
Bedaux, Reality of Symbols, 83, 89-93, 103, 127-32, 104.
29.
E. de Jongh, Portretten van echt en trouw: Huwelijk en gezin in de Nederlandse kunst van de zeventiende eeuw (Zwolle: Waanders, 1986); D. R. Smith, Masks of Wedlock: Seventeenth-Century Dutch Marriage Portraiture (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1982). On Jan Mijten's family portraits, see Bedaux and Ekkart, Pride and Joy, 221-23.
30.
Jan de Bray, Laat de kinderen tot mij komen: Pieter Braems en zijn gezin [Let Come the Children to Me: Pieter Braems and His Family], 1663, oil on canvas, 136 × 175,5 cm (Haarlem: Frans Halsmuseum), Bedaux and Ekkart, Pride and Joy, 258-59. Cf. Andries van Bochoven (1609-1634), Portret van de schilder Andries van Bochoven en zijn familie [Portrait of the Painter Andries van Bochoven and His Family], 1629, oil on canvas, 130 × 186 cm (Utrecht: Centraal Museum).
31.
Gabriel Metsu, Het gezin van burgemeester Gillis Valckenier [The Family of the Amsterdam Burgomaster Gillis Valckenier], ca. 1657, oil on canvas, 72 × 79 cm (Berlin: Gemäldegalerie Staatliche Museen Preußischer Kulturbesitz); see D. von Gersdorff, Kinderbildnisse aus vier Jahrtausenden: Aus den Sammlungen Berliner Musen (Berlin: Edition Hentrich, 1989), 86-87.
32.
Cf. M. F. Durantini, The Child in Seventeenth Century Dutch Painting (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1983), 3, 53-54, on the family at meal. The numerous drawings and paintings on the family-at-meal topic are generally related to Psalm 128, 1-3: "1. Blessed are all who fear the Lord, who walk in his ways. 2. You will eat the fruit of your labour; blessings and prosperity will be yours. 3. Your wife will be like a fruitful vine within your house; your sons will be like olive shoots around your table." Cf. de Jongh and Luijten, Mirror, 124-28, on a drawing by the Calvinist Claes Jansz Visscher from 1609.
33.
Anonymous, Familie aan tafel [Family at Meal], ca. 1627, panel, 122 × 191 cm (Utrecht: Rijksmuseum Het Catharijneconvent); Bedaux, Reality of Symbols, 85-87; and de Jongh, Portretten, 295-99.
34.
Jan Steen, Het gebed voor de maaltijd [Prayer before Dinner], 1660, panel, 52,7 × 44,5 cm (Sudeley Castle, Gloucestershire: Walter Morrison Collection); see Chapman et al., Jan Steen, 139-41, which compares Steen's painting with Adriaen van Ostade's Het gebed voor de maaltijd [Prayer before Dinner], 1653, etching (Washington: National Gallery of Art). The passage from the Book of Proverbs in Dutch: "geen overvloet van Ryckdoms schat." Cf. A. Gruschka, Der heitere Ernst der Erziehung: Jan Steen malt Kinder und Erwachsene als Erzieher und Erzogene: Eine Entdeckungsreise durch die Bidlwelten Jan Steens und seiner Zeit (Wetzlar: Büchse der Pandora Verlag, 2005), 85-86.
35.
Jan Steen, Het gebed voor de maaltijd [Prayer before Dinner], ca.1663-1665, oil on canvas, 98,4 × 79,4 cm (Belvoir Caste, Grantham: The Duke of Rutland); Chapman et al., Jan Steen, 190-92; Gruschka, Der heitere Ernst der Erziehung, 82-85.
36.
Cats, Huwelijk, 118-20.
37.
Nicolaas Maes, Moeder met kind op de arm [Mother with Child on Her Arm], pen drawing, 7,5 × 5,6 cm (Berlin: Kupferstichkabinett Staatliche Museen Preußischer Kulturbesitz); Gersdorff, Kinderbildnisse, 31.
38.
Gerrit Dou, De jonge moeder [Young Mother], 1658, oil on panel, 73,5 × 55,5 cm (The Hague: Mauritshuis); A. K. Wheelock, ed., Gerrit Dou 1613-1675: Master Painter in the Age of Rembrandt (Washington, DC, New Haven, CT, and London: National Gallery of Art/Yale University Press, 2000), 106-7, 140, 145. On the painter's technique, see A. Boersma, "Dou's Painting Technique," in Gerrit Dou, ed. A. K. Wheelock.
39.
Samuel van Hoogstraten, Moeder met kind in een wieg [Mother with Child in a Crib], 1670, oil on canvas, 69,8 × 56,5 cm (Springfield, MA: Museum of Art); Chr. Brown, ". . . Niet ledighs of Ydels . . . "Nederlandse genreschilders uit de zeventiende eeuw (Amsterdam: J. H. de Bussy, 1984), 140-41.
40.
Gerard Ter Borch, Moeder die het haar van een kind kamt [Motherly Cares], ca. 1652-1653, oil on panel, 33,5 × 29 cm (The Hague: Mauritshuis); Wheelock, Gerard Ter Borch, 90-91; Dekker, "Republic of Educators," 164; Durantini, The Child, 29; Brown, ". . . Niet ledighs," 143-47; E. de Jongh, J. B. Bedaux, P. Hecht, et al., Tot lering en vermaak: Betekenissen van Hollandse genrevoorstellingen uit de zeventiende eeuw (Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum, 1976), 42; on Dirck Hals, see P. C. Sutton, Masters of Seventeenth-Century Dutch Genre Painting (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1984), 143.
41.
Quirijn Van Brekelenkam, Vrouw kamt het haar van haar kind [Woman Combing a Child's Hair], 1648, oil on panel, 57 × 53 cm (Leiden: Museum De Lakenhal); Durantini, The Child, 47; Sutton, Masters, 158. On hair combing in drawings, see de Jongh and Luijten, Mirror, 257-59, note 5. The combination of hair combing and preparation for school is the subject of Jan Saenredam (1565-1607) after Hendrick Goltzius (1558-1617), De ochtend [Dawning], engraving, 21,3 × 15 cm (Berlin: Kupferstichkabinett Staatliche Museen Preußischer Kulturbesitz / Amsterdam: Rijksprentenkabinet, Rijksmuseum); see de Jongh and Luijten, Mirror, 71-74; and Gersdorff, Kinderbildnisse, 136.
42.
Pieter de Hooch, De kelderkamer [The Pantry], ca. 1660, oil on canvas, 64 × 60 cm (Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum); Brown, ". . . Niet ledighs," 143. Pieter de Hooch, De moeder [The Mother], ca. 1661-63, oil on canvas, 92 × 100 cm (Berlin: Gemäldegalerie Staatliche Museen Preußischer Kulturbesitz); Gersdorff, Kinderbildnisse, 19. Cf. de Jongh and Luijten, Mirror, 268-71, on a series of engravings by Geertruyt Roghman (1625 to ca. 1651-1657) on female domestic duties (Amsterdam: Rijksprentenkabinet, Rijksmuseum).
43.
P. Marnix van St. Aldegonde, Ratio instituendae iuventutis (Franeker, 1615) [translated and annotated by H. de Wit-van Westerhuis in De opvoeding van de jeugd (Kampen: De Groot Goudriaan, 1992)], 35, advised mothers to breastfeed their children for several reasons: it was "according to nature," and it "cherished and strengthened the natural loving relationship between parents and children." Cf. H. Duits and T. van Strien, eds., Een intellectuele activist: Studies over leven en werk van Philips van Marnix van Sint Aldegonde (Hilversum: Verloren, 2001); W. Frijhoff, "Marnix over de opvoeding," in Een intellectuele activist, ed. Duits and van Strien, 59-75; L. F. Groenendijk, " `Marnix' kindercatechismus," in Een intellectuele activist, ed. Duits and van Strien, 76-86.
44.
Cats, Huwelijk, 113-14.
45.
Jan Steen, De vette keuken [The Fat Kitchen], ca. 1650, oil on panel, 71 × 91,5 cm (private collection); Jan Steen, De magere keuken [The Meagre Kitchen], ca. 1650, oil on panel, 69,7 × 92 cm (Ottawa: National Gallery of Canada); see in Chapman et al., Jan Steen, 103-8.
46.
See his autobiography, written for his sons: C. Huygens, Mijn leven verteld aan mijn kinderen, ed. F. Blom, 2 vol. (Amsterdam: Bert Bakker, 2003), vol. 1, 21-22, 140-43.
47.
Frans Hals, Catharina Hooft met haar min [Catharina Hooft with Her Nurse], ca. 1619-1620, oil on canvas, 86 × 65 cm (Berlin: Gemäldegalerie Staatliche Museen Preußischer Kulturbesitz); G. Luijten, A. van Suchtelen, R. Baarsen, W. Kloek, and M. Schapelhouman eds., Dawn of the Golden Age: Northern Netherlandish Art 1580-1620 (Amsterdam / Zwolle: Rijksmuseum / Waanders, 1993), 601 (the description by Pieter J. J. van Thiel); and Gersdorff, Kinderbildnisse, 162.
48.
Classic articles are S. Scarr, "Developmental Theories for the 1990s: Development and Individual Differences," Child Development 63 (1992): 1-19; and S. Scarr and K. McCartney, "How People Make Their Own Environment: A Theory of Genotype → Environment Effects," Child Development 54 (1983): 424-35.
49.
Gerrit Dou, De jonge moeder [Young Mother], ca. 1660, oil on canvas, 49,1 × 36,5 cm (Berlin: Gemäldegalerie Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kultuerbesitz). See Durantini, The Child, 7-11, on the rattle as a symbol for earthy enjoyments in seventeenth-century emblems. Cf. Sutton, Masters, 185-86; Gersdorff, Kinderbildnisse, 14-16; Dekker, "Republic of Educators," 165-66.
50.
Caspar Netscher, Moederlijke zorgen [Motherly Cares], oil on panel, 44 × 38 cm (Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum); de Jongh et al., Tot lering en vermaak, 197-99; Durantini, The Child, 231.
51.
Rembrandt van Rijn, Het ongehoorzame kind [The Naughty Child], pen drawing, 20,6 × 14,3 cm (Berlijn: Kupferstichkabinett Staatliche Museen Preußischer Kulturbesitz); Gersdorff, Kinderbildnisse, 20.
52.
See A. Slater and J. Gavin Bremner, eds., Theories of Infant Development (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004); A. Slater and J. Gavin Bremner, eds., An Introduction to Developmental Psychology (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003); Scarr and McCartney, "How People Make Their Own Environment."
53.
An exception is the painting of a proud citizen of the city of Delft and his daughter by Jan Steen, De [zogenaamde] burgemeester van Delft [The (So-called) Burgomaster of Delft], 1655, oil on canvas, 82,5 × 68,6 cm (Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum); see Chapman et al., Jan Steen, 119-21, 12, 72. de Jongh, "Jan Steen, dichtbij en toch veraf," 40, refutes the interpretation by Schama, The Embarrassment, of the citizen as the burgomaster of Delft. Cf. Gruschka, Der heitere Ernst der Erziehung, 115-24.
54.
Cats, Huwelijk, 24.
55.
Cats, Sinne- en minnebeelden, vol. 1, Emblem XLV, Iam plenis nubilis annis, 300-5, vol. 2, 671-83. On Wittewrongel, see L. F. Groenendijk, De Nadere reformatie van het gezin: De visie van Petrus Wittewrongel op de christelijke huishouding (Dordrecht: J. P. van den Tol, 1984). 56. H. Rodney Nevitt Jr., Art and the Culture of Love in Seventeenth-Century Holland (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 9-10. Cf. P. Griffiths, Youth and Authority: Formative Experiences in England, 1560-1640 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1996); L. F. Groenendijk and B. B. Roberts, eds., Losbandige jeugd: Jongeren en moraal in de Nederlanden tijdens de late Middeleeuwen en de Vroegmoderne Tijd (Hilversum: Verloren, 2004).
56.
An example of such a songbook for the youth is Den Nieuwen Lust-Hof; see Nevitt, Art and the Culture of Love, 7-8, 227.
57.
L. F. Groenendijk and B. Roberts, "Vader Cats: Een piëtistisch pedagoog," Pedagogiek 21, no. 1 (2001): 79-82, 82; Nevitt, Art and the Culture of Love, 8, 18; cf. Dekker, "Moral Literacy," 148-51.
58.
See, for example, Isack Elyas, Huwelijksgezelschap [Marriage Company], 1620, oil on panel, 47 × 63 cm (Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum), described by de Jongh, Tot lering en vermaak, 114; cf. Nevitt, Art and the Culture of Love, 101, 140-50; for the belles-lettres background, see R. van Stipriaan, Het volle leven: Nederlandse literatuur en cultuur ten tijde van de Republiek (circa 1550-1800) (Amsterdam: Prometheus, 2002), 140-48.
59.
Jan Steen, Oestereetstertje [Girl Eating Oysters], ca. 1658-1660, oil on panel, 20,5 × 14,5 cm (The Hague: Mauritshuis); Chapman et al., Jan Steen, 126-28, 126 (on Van Beverwijck). Cf. Gruschka, Der heitere Ernst der Erziehung, 51. Other examples are De oestermaaltijd [The Oyster Meal], 1661, by Frans van Mieris (Den Haag: Mauritshuis), in which the man is the seducer (idem., 128), and De oestermaaltijd [The Oyster Meal] by Jacob Ochtervelt; see de Jongh, Tot lering en vermaak, 236-39. Cf. Luijten in his edition of Cats, Sinne- en minnebeelden, vol. 2, 448-49, on the emblem Qui captat, capitur, vol. 1, Emblem XXV, 180-85, and vol. 2, 439-45.
60.
Van Deursen, Mensen van klein vermogen, 108, quoting Jan Cos, Rechts-geleerde verhandelinghe over de troubeloften en het daerop volgende huwelyk (Hoorn, 1738). On Cats, see Dekker, "Moral Literacy," 147.
61.
Jacob Gerritsz. Cuyp, Twee kinderen met een lam [Two Children with a Lamb], 1638, panel, 78,5 × 107,5 cm (Cologne: Wallraf-Richartz-Museum); Bedaux and Ekkart, Pride and Joy, 160-61. The children are anonymous and the painting is in between portrait and genre painting.
62.
Jacob Gerritsz. Cuyp, Een vierjarig meisje met poes en vis [Four-Year-Old Girl with Cat and Fish], 1647, oil on canvas, 108 × 80 cm (The Netherlands: Private collection); Bedaux and Ekkart, Pride and Joy, 194-95.
