Abstract
Recent decades have witnessed significant scholarly interest in understanding people's reproductive decisions and behaviors. The present research focused on reproductive intentions—a critical predictor of reproductive behavior—among young, unmarried, childless women in China. We primarily examined whether this group of women's reproductive intentions could be shaped by their perceptions of reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women, which refers to the perception that pregnant women are treated as mere fetus carriers rather than full human beings with needs and rights. Across five studies (N = 1,157; one pilot study and four main studies) adopting diverse methods, including longitudinal, cross-sectional, and experimental research, the results consistently revealed that perceiving reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women could predict (Studies 1–2) and lead to (Study 3a) lower levels of reproductive intentions among young, unmarried, childless women. Furthermore, this effect was mediated by young women's expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction (Studies 2–3b). As a secondary aim, we found that young women also responded to the expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction by raising their career aspirations (Studies 2–3b). The present research not only advances the objectification framework in the reproductive domain, but also sheds light on future efforts to promote women's reproductive autonomy. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ's website at http:// http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/03616843261415856
Keywords
Introduction
In 2017, a 26-year-old pregnant woman from Shaanxi province, China, tragically chose to end her life by jumping from the fifth floor of a hospital. This suicide occurred because the pregnant woman's family refused her repeated request for a cesarean section, disregarding the unbearable pain she was experiencing during labor (Allen, 2017). This distressing incident illustrates that pregnant women are sometimes, or even often, treated as a mere vessel for bearing a fetus instead of being seen as individuals with needs and rights.
In parallel, the global birth rate has been falling dramatically over the past few decades. According to the United Nations World Population Prospects 2024, many Western countries as well as more developed countries in Eastern Asia like Japan and Korea have total fertility rates significantly below the replacement level of 2.1 children per woman. Meanwhile, in China, the number of births has gradually declined, with an average annual decrease of approximately 1.24 million during 2018–2023 (Zhang et al., 2024b). This demographic trend has prompted scholarly interest in understanding people's reproductive decisions and behaviors. In fact, researchers from different disciplines have long focused on reproductive intentions—a strong predictor of actual reproductive behavior (e.g., Ajzen & Klobas, 2013; Mencarini et al., 2015)—and have suggested a variety of factors that can affect individuals’ reproductive intentions, both at the macro-societal level and at the micro-individual level. However, as complex social beings, people's behavioral intentions may also be shaped by social perceptions formed through social observations.
Therefore, the present research focused on a group of young, unmarried, childless women and investigated whether their reproductive intentions might be influenced by their subjective perceptions that pregnant women are often viewed and treated as merely a reproductive vessel (i.e., perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women). In addition, we simultaneously tested another possible outcome: career aspirations. Specifically, we posited that perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women may reduce reproductive intentions and instead increase career aspirations.
Reproduction-Based Objectification
Objectification, a critical concept that has long been studied in feminist theory and psychology, refers to the treatment of individuals, often women, as objects valued primarily for their sexual functions or physical attributes, rather than as full human beings with individuality, autonomy, and unobservable inner values (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). The existing research on objectification has mainly focused on the experiences of women in general, suggesting that women can be objectified through overt sexualization (i.e., sex-based objectification) or through emphasizing physical appearance (i.e., beauty-based objectification; Chevallereau et al., 2021; Morris & Goldenberg, 2015; Morris et al., 2018).
Notably, recent scholars have recognized that women may also be objectified in the area of reproduction (McLeod, 2002; Dyer et al., 2023). Drawing on terror management theory, Goldenberg and Roberts (2011) preliminarily linked objectification to the capacity to bear children, menstruate, and lactate, suggesting that women's reproductive functions may serve as a basis for objectification. Distinct from sex-based objectification that positions women as sexual objects for others’ gratification, or beauty-based objectification that emphasizes women's superficial appearance, objectification based on reproduction focuses on women's ability for reproduction, framing them as merely a “breeder” (McLeod, 2002). In fact, this form of objectification related to reproduction is deeply rooted in traditional gender roles that emphasize reproduction as a major task and even an obligation for women, constraining women's personal options and freedom (Huang et al., 2016). For example, empirical studies conducted in the U.S. showed that women who voluntarily choose not to have children are perceived as psychologically unfulfilled, frequently facing negative social evaluations and even moral outrage (Ashburn-Nardo, 2017; Szekeres et al., 2023).
Crucially, research specifically focused on pregnant women provides more direct evidence for objectification related to reproduction. Beech et al. (2020) systematically reviewed objectification in the context of pregnancy, pointing out that pregnant bodies are often regarded as merely an “incubator” or a “womb” where the fetus grows and matures. This objectifying view also contributes to the treatment of pregnant women as public property (e.g., unsolicited comments and non-consensual physical touching of a pregnant woman's stomach), depriving them of their full personhood (Beech et al., 2020; Cummins, 2014).
A further manifestation of reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women lies in anti-abortion policies, which often prioritize the rights and well-being of the fetus over those of the pregnant woman (Sutton et al., 2022). For instance, based on Nussbaum's (1995) objectification framework, Dyer et al. (2023) provided a comprehensive theoretical analysis of reproductive objectification by carefully examining how anti-abortion rhetoric objectifies pregnant women, highlighting key dimensions such as denial of subjectivity, denial of autonomy, and instrumentality. Earlier scholars (Huang et al., 2014; Moore, 2019) have also linked abortion policies to objectification, arguing that anti-abortion attitudes and legislation treat pregnant women as “reproductive instruments,” denying women's reproductive autonomy (Upadhyay et al., 2014).
Reproduction-Based Objectification Toward Pregnant Women
The present research aimed to further understand reproduction-based objectification specifically targeting pregnant women for the following reasons. First, pregnancy itself represents the most visible and biologically salient stage of reproduction, making pregnant women a prototypical target of reproductive objectification. Second, as reviewed earlier, existing research examining reproductive objectification has predominantly centered pregnant women, which provides an important foundation for further investigation. Third, despite these initial investigations, notable gaps still remain. Specifically, although Dyer et al. (2023) introduced the concept of reproductive objectification and systematically analyzed its manifestations in the context of pregnancy and childbirth, they did not offer a clear and precise definition of the term. Moreover, they focused on a specific context (i.e., anti-abortion rhetoric and policies) when examining how pregnant women are objectified based on their reproductive capability. Though this context has provided valuable insights, it does not capture the more pervasive experiences of reproductive objectification that pregnant women may encounter in everyday social environments.
Building on existing work (Deci & Ryan, 1987; Nussbaum, 1995), we attempted to extend Dyer et al.'s (2023) conceptual framework. We further proposed the term reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women, which we defined as perceiving and treating pregnant women as merely a vessel for reproduction. This occurs when the value of pregnant women is narrowly tied to their potential to carry and deliver a child, while their personal needs, feelings, and autonomy are largely neglected and denied.
Importantly, reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women encompasses three key elements—instrumentality, denial of autonomy, and denial of subjectivity. Specifically, instrumentality refers to the tendency to treat pregnant women merely as reproductive means to an end, valuing them primarily for their childbearing function. Denial of autonomy means that pregnant women are deprived of their ability and freedom to make independent decisions during pregnancy and reproduction, often facing external pressure or control from others. Denial of subjectivity involves the disregard or neglect of pregnant women's own feelings, thoughts, and lived experiences, viewing them as passive objects rather than as full human beings with emotional and psychological depth. These three elements can be enacted through various social channels, including interpersonal interactions (e.g., unsolicited comments about a pregnant woman's body, questioning her reproductive decisions; Cummins, 2014), structural and institutional systems (e.g., healthcare practices that limit informed choice; Keedle et al., 2024), and media representations (e.g., stereotypical portrayals of pregnancy in advertisements and television).
Reproductive Intentions
Reproductive intentions, also commonly referred to as fertility intentions, fertility desire, childbearing desires, and fertility expectations, reflect an individual's motivations, desires, or plans regarding whether, when, and how many children to have (Miller, 1994; Qiao et al., 2024). In particular, reproductive intentions capture three main aspects: the desire to have children, the number of children one intends to have, and the intended timing of birth (Qiao et al., 2024). It is worth mentioning that reproductive intentions are distinct from actual reproductive behaviors; however, they reflect the motivational factors that influence decision-making about childbearing, thus serving as a primary predictor of reproductive behaviors (e.g., Ajzen & Klobas, 2013; Mencarini et al., 2015).
Numerous researchers have explored a wide range of factors that may influence individuals’ reproductive intentions, which can be categorized into macro (e.g., economic/social stability and social policy; Cheng et al., 2020; Jung et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2023a), interpersonal (e.g., relationships with partners and family; Chen et al., 2024), and individual levels (e.g., personal attitudes/values and objective demographic features; Hu et al., 2024; Qiao et al., 2024). Although these factors provide a broader understanding of the influences on people's reproductive intentions, there remain some notable gaps in the existing literature. In particular, much of the prior research has been conducted in the fields of sociology and demography, typically including both women and men. However, recent evidence has suggested that young, unmarried, childless women show particularly low reproductive intentions (Chan et al., 2015; Qiao et al., 2024; Ren et al., 2023), which raises our interest in conducting targeted research on this group of women. Furthermore, despite multiple identified determinants of reproductive intentions across societal, interpersonal, and intrapersonal levels, very few studies have considered the potential role of perceived social attitudes targeted at a specific group. One such factor could be the perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women, where young women who have not yet experienced pregnancy observe and perceive the phenomenon of pregnant women being treated as reproductive tools. This subjective perception may shape young women's attitudes and views on pregnancy and reproduction, thereby influencing their own reproductive choices.
How Perceiving Reproduction-Based Objectification Toward Pregnant Women Affects Reproductive Intentions Among Young Women: A Social Learning Process
According to the social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), people can acquire knowledge, attitudes, and behavioral tendencies not only through direct experience but also through observing others in their environment. This theory highlights the role of the observer's perspective, whereby through observing others’ behaviors and experiences, individuals form subjective expectations about similar situations they might face, and therefore adjust their own behaviors in the future (Bandura, 1977, 1986). As previously discussed, reproduction-based objectification can be enacted upon pregnant women through a variety of practices, and these enactments may be observed by young women who have not yet experienced pregnancy. As a result, such observational experience may shape young women's perceptions about how pregnant women are treated. That is, they may come to perceive that pregnant women are viewed and treated as merely instruments of reproduction, with personal needs, rights, and autonomy being sacrificed. Building upon social learning theory, this observed and perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women may then lead young women to associate pregnancy and reproduction with a loss of autonomy, and thereby develop negative attitudes and expectations about reproduction. In particular, we assumed that perceiving reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women would lead young women to expect future reproduction (i.e., future pregnancy and childbirth) to threaten their autonomy, which in turn might reduce their reproductive intentions.
Denial of autonomy is a key dimension of reproduction-based objectification, as pregnant women experiencing reproduction-based objectification are often deprived of the ability to make their own decisions during the reproductive process (Dyer et al., 2023). As such, when observing reproduction-based objectification and perceiving that pregnant women are often stripped of autonomy (i.e., the observed), young women might vicariously learn to form a perception that the process of pregnancy and childbirth comes with a loss of autonomy, and therefore anticipate that their own autonomy would be greatly threatened during the future reproductive process (i.e., the observer).
Further, when expecting that future reproduction would pose a threat to their autonomy, young women are likely to reduce their reproductive intentions. According to self-determination theory, autonomy is a fundamental psychological need that is essential for motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000), such that people generally favor behaviors or situations that can foster their autonomy while resisting those that may threaten their autonomy (Brehm & Brehm, 1981; Walter & Lopez, 2008). Following this logic, if young women expect future reproduction to threaten their autonomy, they may be less motivated toward reproduction and have lower reproductive intentions.
Although no empirical studies have directly examined this possible link, there are a few lines of indirect evidence. For instance, Walter and Lopez (2008) found that physicians were less willing to use clinical technology when they perceived it as a threat to their professional autonomy. In addition, research on intergroup relations has shown that when individuals expected that interacting with outgroup members would undermine their autonomy, they were less motivated to engage in these interactions, leading to more negative attitudes and behavior toward outgroups (Weinstein et al., 2022).
Drawing from this body of work, we proposed expected autonomy threat as a potential psychological mechanism linking perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women to reproductive intentions. Importantly, our decision to focus on autonomy threat was theoretically grounded in self-determination theory, which suggests that autonomy is crucial to motivational and behavioral decision-making (Deci & Ryan, 2000). This makes autonomy especially relevant to reproductive intentions, which may involve motivational processes.
Enhanced Career Aspirations as Another Possible Outcome of Expected Autonomy Threat Derived From Future Reproduction
In addition to diminished reproductive intentions, we hypothesized that expected autonomy threat from future reproduction may enhance career aspirations among young women in parallel. This is because pursuing career aspirations offers a powerful means to gain autonomy and maintain control over one's life. Specifically, career development and success can provide women with opportunities to achieve financial independence and realize personal fulfillment (Schmitt et al., 2021; Sturges, 1999), which are crucial for exercising self-determination and making independent life choices (Chantara et al., 2011). More importantly, even if young women experience pregnancy and childbirth in the future, by promoting career aspirations and advancing in their careers, they could challenge the objectifying view that reduces them to a reproductive tool without autonomy and agency, asserting more control over their life path and choices. Supporting this speculation, preliminary evidence suggests that need thwarting (including autonomy thwarting) in one domain can lead individuals to develop compensatory motives, seeking to satisfy the thwarted needs in other areas (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Lalande et al., 2017).
In sum, we proposed that when young, unmarried, childless women perceive reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women, they may expect their own autonomy to be threatened in the future reproductive process. They may respond to this expected autonomy threat in two different ways—reducing their reproductive intentions and increasing their career aspirations. The overall hypothesized theoretical model is illustrated in Figure 1.
Research Framework Based on the Social Learning Theory.
Research Overview
Our main hypotheses were that perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women would predict and reduce reproductive intentions [H1] and that expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction would mediate this relation [H2]. Our secondary hypothesis was that expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction would also lead to increased career aspirations [H3].
To examine our hypotheses, five studies were conducted adopting a multi-method approach: one pilot study and four main studies. In particular, the pilot study assessed and validated a newly adapted measure of perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women. To provide preliminary support, Study 1 tested the association between perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women and reproductive intentions using a short-term longitudinal design. Study 2 was a cross-sectional survey study, further examining the mediating role of expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction. In addition, we also tested career aspirations as a parallel outcome. Following the experimental-chain-mediation approach (Spencer et al., 2005), Studies 3a and 3b aimed to provide further causal evidence for our hypothesized mediation models. Specifically, in Study 3a, we examined whether priming young women to perceive reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women would lead them to anticipate a threat to their own autonomy derived from future reproduction, which was expected to lower reproductive intentions and increase career aspirations. Study 3b was designed to further confirm the causal effect of expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction on reproductive intentions and career aspirations, respectively.
Transparency and Openness
Ethical approval has been received from the authors’ affiliated institution (Reference No. 2024-25-CIR2-1). We report how we determined all data exclusions, manipulations, and measures in the study, consistent with reporting standards for quantitative research (Appelbaum et al., 2018). All data, analysis code, and research materials are available by contacting the corresponding author. The design and analysis of the current research were not pre-registered. The present research targeted unmarried, childless Chinese women aged between 18 to 35 years, because the 10-Year Youth Development Plan released by the Chinese Central Committee and the State Council states that “youth” refers to those from 14 to 35 (The State Council of the People's Republic of China, 2017).
Pilot Study
To provide initial empirical support for the validity of our construct of perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women, we conducted a pilot study (N = 199, unmarried and childless Chinese women; Mage = 25.72, SD = 4.68, age range: 18–35). Participants completed our newly developed five-item measure of perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women, adapted from the objectification scale (Belmi & Schroeder, 2021). Participants also completed measures of perceived sex- and beauty-based objectification toward women and reproductive intentions.
Results of exploratory factor analysis supported a two-factor structure, with reproduction-based objectification items loading on one factor and sex- and beauty-based objectification items on the other. Although the two constructs were moderately correlated, regression analysis showed that perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women significantly predicted reproductive intentions even when controlling for sex- and beauty-based objectification. These results suggest that perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women and perceived sex- and beauty-based objectification toward women are conceptually related but empirically distinct constructs (see Supplementary Materials for details).
Study 1
Study 1 aimed to provide initial support for the association between perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women and young women's reproductive intentions [H1] using a two-wave longitudinal design. This approach reduces potential concerns of common method bias that may arise in a cross-sectional design (Podsakoff et al., 2012). In response to calls for using shorter time lags in longitudinal research (Dormann & Griffin, 2015), we chose a 2-week interval to allow sufficient time for perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women to manifest its influence, while minimizing attrition and recall issues. Perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women is conceptualized as a relatively stable perception shaped by accumulated social observations, and thus is expected to remain consistent over such a short period.
In addition, traditional gender role attitudes were assessed and controlled to rule out their potential confounding effect. Traditional gender role attitudes prescribe that women's primary social role is to bear and raise children and subordinate their personal autonomy to reproductive responsibilities (Holton et al., 2009; McQuillan et al., 2008), which could play a critical role in shaping people's reproductive attitudes and intentions (e.g., Kato, 2018; Zhang et al., 2024a). These traditional gender roles may also shape how individuals perceive reproduction-based objectification, such that individuals who strongly endorse traditional gender roles may consider it normal or appropriate to view women as instruments of reproduction without autonomy and subjectivity.
Method
Participants
Since this is the first study on the hypothesized link, we determined the sample size following the general suggestion that most regression coefficients stabilize at a sample size of 250 (Schönbrodt & Perugini, 2013). For Study 1, we initially aimed for 350 participants given the potential attrition rate of about 25% when collecting two waves of longitudinal data on a crowdsourcing survey platform (Daly & Nataraajan, 2015). Thus, at Time 1, we recruited 363 Chinese women college students who were unmarried and childless from Credamo, an online participant recruitment platform in China, similar to Prolific. After two weeks, 258 participants from the first wave completed the measure at Time 2, resulting in a final sample of 258 participants (Mage = 23.02, SD = 3.43, age range: 18–35). The attrition rate was 28.93%. Educational level included: 0.4% high school, 6.6% junior college, 73.3% bachelor's degree, 17.4% master's degree, 2.3% doctorate degree. Annual family incomes included: 6.6% less than ¥ 30,000, 14.0% between ¥ 30,000 and ¥ 50,000, 24.0% between ¥ 50,000 and ¥ 100,000, 35.3% between ¥ 100,000 and ¥ 200,000, 11.6% between ¥ 200,000 and ¥ 300,000, 5.4% between ¥ 300,000 and ¥ 500,000, 3.1% between ¥ 500,000 and ¥ 1,000,000. Perceived family SES: M = 4.75, SD = 1.44, range: 1–10.
Procedure
Participants’ informed consent was obtained prior to their participation. Study 1 was a survey study, where participants were told that the purpose of the study was to understand their attitudes or beliefs about reproduction. Specifically, participants completed the measure of perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women at Time 1. They also reported basic demographic information, including age, educational level, family annual income, and perceived family SES. Two weeks later (Time 2), all participants who had completed the Time 1 questionnaire were invited to complete a second wave of questionnaires including measures of reproductive intentions and traditional gender role attitudes. Scales that were originally written in English were translated into Chinese by the first author and then were back-translated into English by a bilingual psychology professor. Modifications were made until the authors agreed that the back translation matched the original meaning of the English version. Only participants who had completed both waves of measures were included in the final analysis. All participants were given a small amount of compensation (i.e., CNY 2.0, equivalent to USD 0.28) at the end of the study.
Measures
Perceived Reproduction-Based Objectification Toward Pregnant Women (Time 1)
The five-item measure that was developed and validated in the pilot study was used to assess the perceptions of reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women. Participants indicated the extent to which they agreed with each statement (e.g., “Based on my observation, I feel that little attention has been paid to the wishes and desires of pregnant women,” “Based on my observation, I feel that pregnant women are often treated as though they are an object bearing the fetus”) on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 7(totally agree). Responses were averaged, with higher scores representing higher levels of perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women. In this study, this measure showed acceptable reliability (α = .78).
Reproductive Intentions (Time 2)
Reproductive intentions were operationalized using two indicators—desire to have children and desired number of children. Specifically, the desire to have children was assessed with two items: “I want to have children (at some point in the future)” and “Having children of my own (at some point in the future) is important to me” (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). Scores of the two items were averaged (r = .81, p < .001), with a higher score reflecting a stronger desire of having children.
The second index (i.e., desired number of children) asked participants to indicate how many children they would like to have in the future without considering fertility policies and other conditions, with a greater desired number of children suggesting stronger reproductive intentions. This operationalization has been widely used in prior studies (e.g., Li et al., 2011; Qiao et al., 2024). Although desired number of children is a count variable, its distribution in the present sample demonstrated sufficient variability and approximate normality (range = 0–3, M = 1.02, SD = 0.81, skewness = 0.18, kurtosis =－0.96), supporting its treatment as a continuous variable. In this study, the correlation between the two indicators was 0.71.
Control Variable (Time 2)
Participants’ traditional gender role attitudes were measured using four items taken from the Attitudinal Inventory (Renzetti, 1987). These items (“For a woman, marriage should be more important than a career,” “If a husband and wife each have an equally good career opportunity, but in different cities, the husband should take the job and the wife should follow,” “Women should take care of running their homes and leave running the country up to men,” “Career women tend to be masculine and domineering”) were rated on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). The scores were averaged, with a higher score corresponding to more traditional gender role attitudes. This scale was validated among women college students (Renzetti, 1987). In this study, this scale had acceptable reliability (α = .71).
Results and Discussion
Descriptive statistics of key variables are shown in Table S2. The longitudinal association between perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women and reproductive intentions was tested using regression analyses. Specifically, two separate regression models were conducted, in which perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women was entered as the independent variable, and the two indicators of reproductive intentions were treated as the dependent variables, respectively. The results showed that perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women at Time 1 was negatively linked to both indices of reproductive intentions at Time 2: the desire to have children (b = −0.61, SE = 0.11, t = −5.81, p < .001) and the desired number of children (b = −0.24, SE = 0.05, t = −4.84, p < .001). These effects remained significant after controlling for traditional gender role attitudes 1 : the desire to have children: b = −0.47, SE = 0.10, t = −4.74, p < .001; the desired number of children: b = −0.19, SE = 0.05, t = −3.88, p < .001. In sum, Study 1 preliminarily demonstrated a longitudinal association between perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women and reduced reproductive intentions among young, unmarried, childless Chinese women, thereby supporting H1.
Study 2
The aim of Study 2 was to further examine the potential mediating role of expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction in the link between perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women and reproductive intentions [H1 & H2]. We also tested career aspirations as a parallel outcome [H3]. Moreover, perceived negative experiences during pregnancy and perceived pregnancy discrimination/prejudice were additionally measured to rule out their potential confounding effects. Like objectification in general, reproduction-based objectification is also a form of mistreatment (Cheng et al., 2024) and is likely to be experienced negatively by pregnant women. However, such negative experiences of reproduction-based objectification is conceptually distinct from other types of negative experiences during pregnancy or pregnancy-related discrimination/prejudice. Specifically, general negative experiences during pregnancy, such as physical discomfort or feeling anxious about whether the baby is normal (DiPietro et al., 2008), often refer to the physical and psychological stress associated with the pregnancy itself, without necessarily involving the denial of the pregnant woman's personhood. In addition, pregnancy discrimination and prejudice typically involve hostile or dismissive attitudes toward pregnant women, such as assumptions that they are overly emotional, less competent, or uncommitted to work (Pownall et al., 2023). In contrast, rather than being devalued due to being pregnant, pregnant women who experience reproduction-based objectification may sometimes be overly valued and protected as they are treated as a “precious vessel” bearing the fetus (Sutton et al., 2011).
Method
Participants
For Study 2, we aimed for at least 250 participants based on Monte Carlo simulations (Schönbrodt & Perugini, 2013). Three hundred and twenty-four Chinese women who were unmarried and childless were recruited from Credamo. Twenty-four participants failed the attention check question and were thus excluded, which left a total of 300 participants in the final analysis: Mage = 26.24, SD = 4.38, age range: 18–35; Educational level included: 1.0% high school, 5.0% junior college, 79.0% bachelor's degree, 14.3% master's degree, 0.7% doctorate degree; Perceived SES: M = 5.48, SD = 1.29, range: 1–10; Employment status included: 77.7% employed, 22.3% unemployed.
Procedure
Participants’ informed consent was obtained prior to their participation. This survey study was conducted online via Credamo. After reporting their basic demographic information (i.e., age, educational level, perceived SES, and employment status), participants were instructed to complete all measures. Scales that were originally written in English were translated into Chinese by the first author and were then back-translated into English by a bilingual psychology professor. Modifications were made until the authors agreed that the back translation matched the original meaning of the English version. The order of the measures was counterbalanced across participants. All participants were given a small amount of compensation (i.e., CNY 2.0, equivalent to USD 0.28) at the end of the study.
Measures
Perceived Reproduction-Based Objectification Toward Pregnant Women
The same 5-item scale used in Study 1 was utilized to measure participants’ perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women 2 (α = .95).
Expected Autonomy Threat Derived From Future Reproduction
To assess expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction, three items were adapted from the autonomy subscale of the Basic Psychological Needs Scale (La Guardia et al., 2000). The items included: “I feel that during future pregnancy and childbirth, I will be free to decide for myself how to live my life (reverse coded),” “I feel that during future pregnancy and childbirth, I will frequently have to do what I am told,” and “I feel that during future pregnancy and childbirth, there will be not much opportunity for me to decide for myself how to do things in my daily life.” Items were rated on a 1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree scale and responses were averaged, with higher scores suggesting higher levels of expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction. In this study, this newly adapted scale demonstrated excellent internal consistency (α = .89).
Reproductive Intentions
Participants’ reproductive intentions were measured using the same two indexes as in Study 1—the desire to have children (r = .87, p < .001) and the desired number of children.
Career Aspirations
We utilized the Career-Oriented Commitment scale (Ellemers et al., 1998) to measure participants’ career aspirations. This scale included six items (e.g., “I regularly consider what I could do to get ahead at work in the future” and “I think that I should have a successful career in future”), which were rated on a 1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree. Scores across items were averaged, with higher scores indicating greater levels of career aspirations. Previous research has confirmed the validity and reliability of the scale (Ellemers et al., 1998). In this study, this scale showed good internal consistency (α = .80).
Control Variables
As controls, participants’ perceived negative experiences during pregnancy and perceived pregnancy discrimination/prejudice were measured. For perceived negative experiences during pregnancy, we developed two items based on previous research (DiPietro et al., 2008) to assess participants’ perception of the physical and psychological stress experienced by pregnant women. The two items were “I feel that pregnant women often worry about pregnancy loss (e.g., whether the baby is normal, miscarriage)” and “I feel that pregnant women often experience physical discomfort caused by pregnancy (e.g., heartburn, fatigue, pain, nausea, vomiting)”. These two items were rated on a 1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree scale. Scores of the two items were averaged, such that a higher score represents a greater perception of negative experiences during pregnancy (r = .63, p < .001).
To assess participants’ perceived pregnancy discrimination/prejudice, two items were adapted from the Workplace Prejudice/Discrimination Inventory (James et al., 1994), following prior studies (e.g., Hackney et al., 2021). The items were “I feel that prejudice/discrimination toward pregnant women exists at work and in everyday life” and “I feel that pregnant women are treated poorly at work and in everyday life.” These items were rated on a 1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree scale. Scores of the two items were averaged, such that a higher score indicates a greater perception of pregnancy discrimination/prejudice (r = .81, p < .001). 3 In addition, participants completed the same scale measuring traditional gender role attitudes as in Study 1 (α = .73).
Results and Discussion
As predicted (see Table 1), perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women was negatively associated with both the desire to have children and the desired number of children. In addition, perceived reproduction-based objectification was positively correlated with expected autonomy threat, which was negatively related to the desire to have children and the desired number of children, but was positively associated with career aspirations.
Results of Descriptive and Correlational Analyses, Study 2.
Note. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
Mediation Analyses
Reproductive Intentions
Bootstrapping mediation analyses with 5,000 reiterations (PROCESS Model 4; Hayes, 2013) were conducted to test our hypothesized mediation models (see Figure 2). First, perceived reproduction-based reproduction toward pregnant women, expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction, and the desire to have children were treated as the predictor, the mediator, and the outcome, respectively. The results showed that the indirect effect was significant (b = −0.19, SE = 0.05, 95% CI [−0.30, −0.10]). This indirect effect remained significant after controlling for perceived negative experiences during pregnancy, perceived pregnancy discrimination/prejudice, and traditional gender role attitudes (b = −0.08, SE = 0.03, 95% CI [−0.16, −0.03]).
Mediation Models for the Effect of Perceived Reproduction-Based Objectification Toward Pregnant Women on (A) the Desire to Have Children, (B) the Desired Number of Children, (C) and Career Aspirations Via Expected Autonomy Threat Derived From Future Reproduction, Respectively, Study 2.
When the outcome was replaced with the desired number of children in the mediation model, the indirect effect was also significant (b = −0.05, SE = 0.02, 95% CI [−0.10, −0.01]). This indirect effect remained significant after controlling for perceived negative experiences during pregnancy, perceived pregnancy discrimination/prejudice, and traditional gender role attitudes 4 (b = −0.02, SE = 0.01, 95% CI [−0.05, −0.002]). Thus, H1 and H2 were supported.
Career Aspirations
In the model that focused on career aspirations as the outcome variable, the indirect effect was significant (b = 0.04, SE = 0.02, 95% CI [0.001, 0.09]). However, this indirect effect became non-significant after controlling for perceived negative experiences during pregnancy, perceived pregnancy discrimination/prejudice, and traditional gender role attitudes (b = 0.01, SE = 0.01, 95% CI [−0.01, 0.03]). Thus, H3 was not supported with controls.
Taken together, findings from Study 2 revealed that perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women was associated with stronger expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction, which in turn was linked to weaker reproductive intentions but greater career aspirations. Notably, the associations with reproductive intentions remain robust even after accounting for perceived negative experiences during pregnancy, perceived pregnancy discrimination/prejudice, and traditional gender role attitudes. However, the corresponding associations with career aspirations become non-significant once these controls are included, suggesting that the influence of perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women on career aspirations may not be entirely independent but intertwined with broader sociocultural beliefs and perceptions.
Study 3
To further provide causal evidence for our proposed mediation models [H1–H3], we adopted the experimental-chain-mediation approach (Spencer et al., 2005) in Study 3. In particular, Study 3a aimed to examine whether priming participants to perceive reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women would lead them to expect future reproduction to threaten their autonomy, which would in turn associate with reduced reproductive intentions but heightened career aspirations. In Study 3b, we manipulated participants’ expected autonomy threat derived from reproduction to test its causal effect on reproductive intentions and career aspirations, respectively.
Study 3a
Method
Participants
Following the criteria adopted in prior experimental studies (e.g., Wang et al., 2023b, 2024), we aimed at a sample of 100 participants per condition. We recruited 220 Chinese women who were unmarried and childless through Credamo. Twenty participants failed attention check or did not follow instructions (i.e., did not recall events or experiences according to given instructions) and were thus excluded from analysis. This left a sample of 200 participants in the final analysis: Mage = 26.14, SD = 3.95, age range: 18–35; Educational level included: 0.5% junior high school and below, 2.0% high school, 5.0% junior college, 77.0% bachelor's degree, 14.0% master's degree, 1.5% doctorate degree; Annual income included: 17.0% less than ¥ 30,000, 10.0% between ¥ 30,000 and ¥ 50,000, 37.0% between ¥ 50,000 and ¥ 100,000, 25.0% between ¥ 100,000 and ¥ 200,000, 8.5% between ¥ 200,000 and ¥ 300,000, 1.5% between ¥ 300,000 and ¥ 500,000, 1.0% between ¥ 500,000 and ¥ 1,000,000; Perceived SES: M = 5.20, SD = 1.28, range: 1–10. Sensitivity power analyses revealed that a minimum effect size of f = .20 could be detected under standard criteria (α = .05, power = .80).
Procedure
Participants’ informed consent was obtained prior to their participation. This experimental study was conducted online using Credamo. After providing general demographic information, including age, educational level, annual income, and perceived SES, participants completed a writing task as manipulation of perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women. For this, they were randomly assigned to either an objectification (n1 = 100) or a control condition (n2 = 100). This was followed by measures of expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction, reproductive intentions, career aspirations, and traditional gender role attitudes. All participants were compensated with a small amount of monetary reward (i.e., CNY 2.0, equivalent to USD 0.28) after they were thanked and debriefed.
Measures
Perceived Reproduction-Based Objectification Toward Pregnant Women
To manipulate perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women, participants were required to complete a writing task, adapted from previous research (Cheng et al., 2022, 2024; Poon et al., 2020). Specifically, participants in the objectification condition were instructed to describe the phenomena of pregnant women being viewed and treated as merely a vessel for reproduction that they had observed in real life or on the Internet. Participants in the control condition were asked to describe their last visit to a supermarket or a grocery store. Participants in both conditions were asked to describe the event or experience as vividly as possible and write down details, including their feelings.
A pilot study with a separate group of participants (N = 60) was conducted as a proof-of-concept test to examine whether the writing task could elicit higher levels of perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women. Specifically, participants were asked to indicate how much they agreed with three statements: “I feel that pregnant women are objectified,” “I feel that pregnant women are treated as though they were an object bearing the fetus,” “I feel that the thoughts and feelings of pregnant women are neglected” (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). They also responded to an item: “I can easily describe the experience” (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree), which was used to check whether there was a difference in description between the two conditions. The results showed that those in the objectification condition (M = 6.17, SD = 0.53) perceived a higher level of reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women than those in the control condition (M = 2.40, SD = 1.10), F(1, 58) = 284.63, p < .001,
Expected Autonomy Threat Derived From Future Reproduction
The same three-item measure from Study 2 was used in this study. To more accurately measure the immediate impact of the experimental context, the items were slightly modified to reflect participants’ perceptions at the moment. In other words, the state level of expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction was assessed. An example item included “Now, I feel that during future pregnancy and childbirth I will frequently have to do what I am told” (α = .80).
Reproductive Intentions
The same two indicators from Studies 1–2 were utilized in this study. Again, the items were slightly modified to assess the state level of reproductive intentions. For example, “Now, I think I will want to have children (at some point in the future)” (r = .84, p < .001).
Career Aspirations
The same Career-oriented Commitment scale used in Study 2 was used in this study. When responding to the items, participants were told to focus on their state level of career aspirations. For example, “Now, I think that I should have a successful career in future” (α = .71).
Control Variable
As a control measure, participants completed the same traditional gender role attitudes scale from Studies 1–2 (α = .81).
Results and Discussion
Main Effects
ANOVAs were conducted to examine whether the expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction, reproductive intentions, and career aspirations would be affected by condition (objectification vs. control), respectively. As expected, compared to those in the control condition, participants in the objectification condition anticipated a greater threat to autonomy during future reproduction, exhibited a lower desire to have children, desired fewer children, and showed stronger career aspirations (see Table 2).
Analysis of Variance Results, Study 3a.
Mediation Analyses
Bootstrapping mediation analyses with 5,000 reiterations (PROCESS Model 4; Hayes, 2013) were conducted to test whether condition (objectification = 1 vs. control = 0) would affect the expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction, which in turn, would relate to the desire to have children, the desired number of children, and career aspirations, respectively (see Figure 3). The results revealed that the indirect effects were significant for the following dependent variables: the desire to have children, b = −1.01, SE = 0.19, 95% CI [−1.41, −0.66]; the desired number of children, b = −0.32, SE = 0.08, 95% CI [−0.49, −0.18]; and career aspirations, b = 0.14, SE = 0.07, 95% CI [0.01, 0.27]. These indirect effects remained significant after traditional gender role attitudes were controlled 5 : the desire to have children, b = −0.99, SE = 0.19, 95% CI [−1.38, −0.64]; the desired number of children, b = −0.32, SE = 0.08, 95% CI [−0.48, −0.17]; career aspirations, b = 0.13, SE = 0.06, 95% CI [0.01, 0.26]. Overall, these findings supported H1–H3, indicating that priming young, unmarried, childless women to perceive reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women led them to anticipate future reproduction as a threat to their own autonomy, which in turn predicted their reduced reproductive intentions and enhanced career aspirations.
Mediation Models for the Effect of Condition (Objectification vs. Control) on the (A) Desire to Have Children, (B) the Desired Number of Children, (C) and Career Aspirations Via Expected Autonomy Threat Derived From Future Reproduction, Respectively, Study 3a.
Study 3b
Study 3b aimed to further examine the causal effect of expected autonomy threat derived from reproduction on reproductive intentions and career aspirations, respectively. Specifically, participants’ expected autonomy threat derived from reproduction was first manipulated and then their reproductive intentions and career aspirations were assessed.
Method
Participants
Similar to Study 3a, we aimed to recruit 100 participants per condition. Two hundred and eighteen Chinese women who were unmarried and childless were recruited via Credamo. Of these participants, 18 failed comprehension check and were thus excluded from analysis, resulting in a final sample of 200 participants: Mage = 25.91, SD = 4.03, age range: 18–35; Educational level included: 4.0% high school, 3.5% junior college, 74.0% bachelor's degree, 16.5% master's degree, 2.0% doctorate degree; Annual income included: 20.0% less than ¥ 30,000, 11.5% between ¥ 30,000 and ¥ 50,000, 31.0% between ¥ 50,000 and ¥ 100,000, 32.5% between ¥ 100,000 and ¥ 200,000, 4.0% between ¥ 200,000 and ¥ 300,000, 1.0% between ¥ 300,000 and ¥ 500,000; Perceived SES: M = 5.25, SD = 1.32, range: 1–10. Sensitivity power analyses revealed that a minimum effect size of f = .20 could be detected under standard criteria (α = .05, power = .80).
Procedure
Participants’ informed consent was obtained prior to their participation. This experimental study was conducted online using Credamo. After reporting general demographic information, including age, educational level, annual income, and perceived SES, participants read material designed as a manipulation of expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction. For this, they were randomly assigned to either a low autonomy (n1 = 100) or a high autonomy condition (n2 = 100). This was followed by measures of reproductive intentions, career aspirations, and traditional gender role attitudes. All participants were compensated with a small amount of monetary reward (i.e., CNY 1.0, equivalent to USD 0.14) after they were thanked and debriefed.
Measures
Expected Autonomy Threat Derived From Future Reproduction
To manipulate expected autonomy threat derived from reproduction, we developed a reading passage framed as an interview with an obstetrician and gynecologist. Specifically, participants in the low autonomy condition read that in order to ensure the healthy development of the fetus, women during pregnancy should not freely make decisions about their behaviors and lives, such that they would often be subject to many restrictions in terms of diet, exercise, and daily interactions. By contrast, participants in the high autonomy condition were informed that women during pregnancy are actually free to decide on their behaviors and lives as long as they follow the doctor's instructions and medical care (see Supplementary Materials for details).
As in Study 3a, a pilot study with a separate sample (N = 60) was conducted as a proof-of-concept test to examine whether the reading materials would produce differences in expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction. Specifically, participants completed the scale measuring expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction used in Study 3a. The results showed that those in the low autonomy condition (M = 5.51, SD = 0.89) anticipated higher autonomy threat derived from reproduction than those in the high autonomy condition (M = 3.06, SD = 0.98), F(1, 58) = 103.62, p < .001,
To check participants’ comprehension, they were required to answer: “The text suggests whether or not women will lose much of their freedom and autonomy during pregnancy?” Participants who gave a wrong answer and thus failed our attention check were excluded from the final analysis.
Reproductive Intentions
The measures of the desire to have children (r = .84, p < .001) and desired number of children were identical to Study 3a.
Career Aspirations
The scale of career aspirations was identical to Study 3a (α = .80).
Control Variable
The same scale assessing traditional gender role attitudes as in Studies 1–3a was used (α = .81).
Results and Discussion
The ANOVA results revealed that compared to those in the high autonomy condition, participants in the low autonomy condition showed a lower desire to have children, reported a smaller number of desired children, and exhibited higher career aspirations (see Table 3). These effects remained the same after traditional gender role attitudes were controlled: the desire to have children, F(1, 197) = 46.45, p < .001,
Analysis of Variance Results, Study 3b.
General Discussion
Scholars across various fields have long been interested in the factors that may influence people's reproductive intentions. The current research focused on a group of young, unmarried, childless women in the Chinese context, investigating whether their perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women could predict and lower their reproductive intentions. In addition, we examined whether expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction could act as a mediator. As an additional exploration, we also tested whether expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction may increase young women's career aspirations.
A total of five studies were conducted. The pilot study provided evidence of discriminant and predictive validity for the newly adapted measure of perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women. By adopting a short-term longitudinal design, Study 1 revealed that perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women was related to diminished reproductive intentions. Study 2 further demonstrated the mediating role of expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction. In addition, expected autonomy threat was also found to be related to stronger career aspirations, though this association became non-significant with covariates. Studies 3a and 3b further provided causal evidence for the hypothesized mediation models using fully controlled experiments.
Theoretical Implications
The current research makes significant theoretical contributions. First, it advances the literature on objectification in the domain of reproduction and introduces the concept of reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women. The existing objectification literature has documented a great deal of evidence for sex-based and beauty-based objectification (Chevallereau et al., 2021; Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Morris et al., 2018). However, researchers have recently pointed out that women's reproductive capacities can be another basis for objectifying treatment. In particular, pregnant women are sometimes, or even often, regarded as merely a “breeder” or an “incubator” where the fetus grows and matures (Beech et al., 2020; McLeod, 2002). More directly, feminist scholars examining anti-abortion policies have explicitly coined the term “reproductive objectification,” describing how anti-abortion rhetoric and policies strip pregnant women of their personhood, reducing them to passive tools for reproduction (Dyer et al., 2023; Huang et al., 2014; Moore, 2019). Despite these preliminary theoretical explorations, there has not yet been a systematic empirical investigation of objectification based on reproduction specific to pregnant women. The current research, to our knowledge, represents the first empirical attempt to clearly define and examine reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women, further highlighting a unique form of pressure that may be experienced by this specific population.
Second, the present research expands our understanding of the antecedents of reproductive intentions from a social cognitive perspective. Previous research has focused primarily on individual and societal factors that shape intentions of reproduction (Chen et al., 2024; Cheng et al., 2020; Hu et al., 2024; Jung et al., 2024; Qiao et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2023a). The current research, however, focuses on a group of young, unmarried, childless Chinese women, suggesting that observing and perceiving objectification experienced by a unique reference group—pregnant women—can influence these young women's reproductive intentions. Specifically, consistent with social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), findings suggest that when young women perceive pregnant women being treated as mere reproductive vessels, deprived of personal feelings and autonomy, they may come to form a negative attitude toward reproduction, ultimately reducing their reproductive intentions. Therefore, the current research highlights the importance of subjective social perceptions formed through social observations in shaping young women's reproductive intentions.
The present research also identifies a possible mechanism underlying the effect of perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women on reproductive intentions. The denial of autonomy is a central feature of objectification, such that objectified individuals are often stripped of their freedom of choice (Belmi & Schroeder, 2021; Nussbaum, 1995). Similarly, pregnant women who experience reproduction-based objectification may find their right to make decisions about their own bodies and lives greatly constrained (Dyer et al., 2023). However, very few studies have explored how observing an objectified reference group experiencing autonomy loss might threaten the perceived autonomy of the observer themselves. The present research fills this gap by suggesting that when young, unmarried, childless Chinese women observe pregnant women being reduced to a reproductive vessel, they perceive a potential threat to their autonomy. This expected autonomy threat further diminishes young women's inclination toward reproduction, which is in line with the self-determination theory positing that people's behavior is often driven by the motivation to maintain the sense of autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Interestingly, the current research also found that when young, unmarried, childless women anticipated that future reproduction would threaten their own autonomy, they simultaneously show greater career aspirations. This response aligns with autonomy-driven motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Lalande et al., 2017), suggesting that expected restrictions on autonomy in the context of reproduction may prompt young women to seek self-determination and fulfillment in other life domains, such as their careers. This finding resonates with a broader body of demographic and sociological research demonstrating that women's career aspirations and labor force participation are often negatively linked to their fertility intentions (e.g., Shreffler, 2017; Shreffler & Johnson, 2013).
Another noteworthy aspect of the current research is its grounding in the Chinese cultural context. Rooted in patriarchal values and traditional family values, Chinese society has historically emphasized reproduction as an essential component of womanhood, highlighting women's responsibility to bear and raise children (e.g., Li & Jiang, 2019). Although China has experienced significant progress in ideological liberation and gender equality over recent decades, these traditional beliefs surrounding reproduction still play a role across social, familial, and interpersonal domains, making the phenomenon of reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women, as well as women in general, especially pronounced and prevalent within Chinese society. Thus, examining perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women as well as its behavioral and psychological consequences (i.e., reproductive intentions) in the Chinese context is not only practically important but also culturally meaningful. These strengths notwithstanding, it would be worthwhile for future research to include participants from different cultural contexts to explore potential cross-cultural differences in how perceived reproduction-based objectification influences young women's reproductive intentions.
Practical Implications
The current research highlights that, beyond physical hardship, women may perceive psychosocial pressures related to reproduction, namely reproduction-based objectification, which points to the need for societal efforts to reduce such objectifying treatment. For example, public campaigns and educational initiatives could be launched to change the societal objectifying attitudes towards pregnant women, showcasing that a woman during pregnancy and childbirth is an individual deserving respect and care rather than an object carrying a fetus.
More broadly, reducing experiences of reproduction-based objectification is essential for promoting women's reproductive autonomy. The key finding of the present research is that perceiving reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women lowers young women's reproductive intentions. In other words, reproduction-based objectification may act as a sociocultural constraint that shapes women's reproductive decisions. Thus, removing this pressure may empower women to feel more in control of their reproductive choices, allowing them to make the decisions that are right for them—whether that involves having children or not—without fear of negative repercussions (i.e., being objectified during reproductive processes). Put differently, in contexts free of such objectification, some women may feel more autonomous and therefore more open to pursuing motherhood, whereas others may still choose not to have children. In fact, we believe that alleviating reproduction-based objectification includes not only reducing systemic societal pressures to have children, but also ensuring that the decision not to have children is equally validated.
Limitations and Future Directions
We focused on reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women in the current research, and “pregnant women” was used in a general sense to refer to pregnant women without distinguishing between different pregnancy-related circumstances. However, in real life, pregnancy is not always a visible condition, and often involves complex contexts, such as assisted reproduction. Thus, future work could further explore how reproduction-based objectification may vary across different pregnancy conditions and statuses.
In addition, reproduction-based objectification was exclusively directed at pregnant women in the current study yet, in reality, this type of objectification could also extend to women in general. That is, women, regardless of pregnancy status, may generally experience objectification based on their reproductive potential. Thus, it would be meaningful to investigate reproduction-based objectification toward women on the whole in future research. Findings from this work might provide a more comprehensive understanding of how societal expectations around reproduction contribute to the objectification of women, thus revealing deeper issues of gender-based inequality and disadvantage in society.
Although we showed that perceived reproduction-based objectification resulted in reduced reproductive intentions among young women, such perceptions may also yield opposite consequences. Grounded in objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), some women who are persistently exposed to reproduction-based objectification and who have not learned to critically resist such perceptions may internalize these societal perceptions, viewing themselves as a reproductive tool (i.e., reproduction-based self-objectification). Preliminary evidence provided by Morris et al. (2014) found that when women's reproductive features were made salient, some women saw themselves more as objects and as less human. This reproduction-based self-perception may therefore lead women to have a higher willingness to have children. Future research should test this possibility.
We treated traditional gender role attitudes as a control variable in our research, and additional supplementary analyses in Studies 1–3a found no significant moderation effects. This suggests that the link between perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women and reduced reproductive intentions among young women appears consistent regardless of their gender role beliefs. However, these findings should be interpreted cautiously, as our samples were relatively homogenous—young, unmarried, childless women with low and narrow variability in traditional gender role attitudes—and sample sizes were modest. Future research with larger, more diverse samples is needed to better assess whether gender role beliefs moderate this relationship.
Conclusions
In conclusion, the current research focused on reproductive intentions among young, unmarried, and childless women in China. Findings across studies consistently revealed that when these women perceived reproduction-based objectification toward pregnant women, they tended to expect future reproduction to threaten their own autonomy. This expected autonomy threat derived from future reproduction in turn resulted in reduced reproductive intentions and heightened career aspirations. Our research not only advances the objectification framework in the reproductive domain, but also sheds light on future efforts to promote reproductive autonomy.
Supplemental Material
sj-docx-1-pwq-10.1177_03616843261415856 - Supplemental material for I Do Not Want to Be a Mere Vessel for Reproduction: Perceiving Reproduction-Based Objectification Toward Pregnant Women Results in Reduced Reproductive Intentions Among Young Women
Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-pwq-10.1177_03616843261415856 for I Do Not Want to Be a Mere Vessel for Reproduction: Perceiving Reproduction-Based Objectification Toward Pregnant Women Results in Reduced Reproductive Intentions Among Young Women by Qinzi Li Mo, Xijing Wang and Lei Cheng in Psychology of Women Quarterly
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Author Contributions: X. W. and Q. M. played equal leading roles in conceptualization, project administration, methodology, and writing the original draft. Q.M. played a leading role in data acquisition and formal analysis. X.W. played a leading role in review and editing, funding acquisition, and validation. L. C. played a supporting role in data acquisition and review and editing.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the APRC–CityUHK New Start-up Grant awarded to Xijing Wang (Project No. 9610567).
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Notes
References
Supplementary Material
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