Black women report higher rates of adult sexual assault (ASA) and sexual objectification compared to White women. Sexual objectification serves as a reminder that Black women's bodies are viewed as sexual objects based on racist/sexist ideologies, though trauma research rarely includes race-specific stressors. In this study, we examined sexual objectification racial microaggressions as a moderator of the relation between ASA severity and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms among Black women. Data were collected from 129 Black college and community women (Mage = 33.84). ASA severity was associated with greater overall PTSD symptoms and symptom clusters. The interaction between ASA severity and sexual objectification microaggressions was associated with greater PTSD symptoms and the PTSD symptom cluster, negative alterations in cognition and mood. ASA severity was associated with PTSD at mean and high sexual objectification racial microaggressions but not low levels. Associations with other PTSD symptom clusters were not significant. Findings suggest sexual objectification racial microaggressions amplify the positive relation between ASA and PTSD symptoms, specifically symptoms related to cognition and mood. It is essential that clinicians assess for race-specific stressors during trauma interventions to help reduce mental health disparities. Post-assault interventions should be tailored with multiculturally sensitive practices to address the ways racial discrimination can exacerbate trauma symptoms.
AndersonJ. R.HollandE.HeldrethC.JohnsonS. P. (2018). Revisiting the Jezebel stereotype: The impact of target race on sexual objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 42(4), 461–476. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684318791543
2.
ArmstrongE. A.Gleckman-KrutM.JohnsonL. (2018). Silence, power, and inequality: An intersectional approach to sexual violence. Annual Review of Sociology, 44(1), 99–122. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073117-041410
3.
BeckerT. E. (2005). Potential problems in the statistical control of variables in organizational research: A qualitative analysis with recommendations. Organizational Research Methods, 8(3), 274–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428105278021
4.
BergmanM. E.DrasgowF. (2003). Race as a moderator in a model of sexual harassment: An empirical test. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 8(2), 131–145. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.8.2.131
5.
BirdC. M.WebbK.SchrammA. T.TorresL.LarsonC.deRoon-CassiniT. A. (2021). Racial discrimination is associated with acute posttraumatic stress symptoms and predicts future posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity in trauma-exposed black adults in the United States. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 34(5), 995–1004. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22670
6.
BlackM. C.BasileK. C.BreidingM. J.SmithS. G.WaltersM. L.MerrickM. T.ChenJ.StevensM. R. (2011). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 summary report. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
7.
Breiding, M. J., Smith, S. G., Basile, K. C., Walters, M. L., Chen, J., & Merrick, M. T. (2014). Prevalence and characteristics of sexual violence, stalking, and intimate partner violence victimization: National intimate partner and sexual violence survey, United States, 2011. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Surveillance Summaries, 63(8), 1–18. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6308a1.htm?s_cid=ss6308a1_e
8.
BrownA. L.TestaM.Messman-MooreT. L. (2009). Psychological consequences of sexual victimization resulting from force, incapacitation, or verbal coercion. Violence Against Women, 15(8), 898–919. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801209335491
9.
BrownlowB. N.SosooE.LongR. N.HoggardL. S. (2019). Sex differences in the impact of racial discrimination on mental health among Black Americans. Current Psychiatry Reports, 21(11), 112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-019-1098-9
10.
Bryant-DavisT.UllmanS.TsongY.AndersonG.CountsP.TillmanS.BhangC.GrayA. (2015). Healing pathways: Longitudinal effects of religious coping and social support on PTSD symptoms in African American sexual assault survivors. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 16(1), 114–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2014.969468
11.
Bryant-DavisT.UllmanS. E.TsongY.TillmanS.SmithK. (2010). Struggling to survive: Sexual assault, poverty, and mental health outcomes of African American women. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80(1), 61–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01007.x
12.
CalogeroR. M.TylkaT. L.SiegelJ. A.PinaA.RobertsT. A. (2021). Smile pretty and watch your back: Personal safety anxiety and vigilance in objectification theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 121(6), 1195–1222. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000344
13.
CampbellR.DworkinE.CabralG. (2009). An ecological model of the impact of sexual assault on women's mental health. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 10(3), 225–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838009334456
14.
CarlsonK. D.WuJ. (2012). The illusion of statistical control: Control variable practice in management research. Organizational Research Methods, 15(3), 413–435. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428111428817
15.
CarterR. T. (2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury: Recognizing and assessing race-based traumatic stress. The Counseling Psychologist, 35(1), 13–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006292033
16.
CatabayC. J.StockmanJ. K.CampbellJ. C.TsuyukiK. (2019). Perceived stress and mental health: The mediating roles of social support and resilience among black women exposed to sexual violence. Journal of Affective Disorders, 259(1), 143–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.08.037
17.
CheeseboroughT.OverstreetN.WardL. M. (2020). Interpersonal sexual objectification, Jezebel stereotype endorsement, and justification of intimate partner violence toward women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 44(2), 203–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684319896345
18.
ClarkR.AndersonN. B.ClarkV. R.WilliamsD. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54(10), 805–816. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.54.10.805
19.
CollinsP. H. (2002). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. Routledge.
20.
DaleS. K.SafrenS. A. (2019). Gendered racial microaggressions predict posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and cognitions among Black women living with HIV. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 11(7), 685–694. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000467
21.
DavisK. C.GilmoreA. K.StappenbeckC. A.BalsanM. J.GeorgeW. H.NorrisJ. (2014). How to score the sexual experiences survey? A comparison of nine methods. Psychology of Violence, 4(4), 445–461. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037494
22.
DworkinE. R.JaffeA. E.Bedard-GilliganM.FitzpatrickS. (2023). PTSD in the year following sexual assault: A meta-analysis of prospective studies. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(2), 497–514. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380211032213
23.
EdwardsK. M.SillerL.WheelerL. A.ChargeL. L.ChargeD. P. L.BordeauxS.HerringtonR.HopfaufS. L.SimonB. (2021). Effectiveness of a sexual assault self-defense program for American Indian girls. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(15-16), NP13245–NP13267. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260521997942
24.
EndersC. K. (2022). Applied missing data analysis (2nd edition). Guilford.
25.
ErvingC. L.WilliamsT. R.FriersonW.DerisseM. (2022). Gendered racial microaggressions, psychosocial resources, and depressive symptoms among black women attending a historically black university. Society and Mental Health, 12(3), 230–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/21568693221115766
26.
FairchildK.RudmanL. A. (2008). Everyday stranger harassment and women's objectification. Social Justice Research, 21(3), 338–357. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-008-0073-0
27.
FedinaL.BrightC. L.CampbellR.RosayA. B.Edmondson SmithM. (2020). Experiences of sexual assault, economic insecurity, and health in an ethnically diverse sample of women. Psychology of Violence, 10(4), 355–366. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000272
28.
ForkusS. R.RaudalesA. M.RafiuddinH. S.WeissN. H.MessmanB. A.ContractorA. A. (2023). The posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) checklist for DSM–5: A systematic review of existing psychometric evidence. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 30(1), 110–121. https://doi.org/10.1037/cps0000111
29.
FredricksonB. L.RobertsT.-A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x
30.
GaffeyA. E.ArandaF.BurnsJ. W.Purim-Shem-TovY. A.BurgessH. J.BeckhamJ. C.BruehlS.HobfollS. E. (2019). Race, psychosocial vulnerability and social support differences in inner-city women’s symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 32(1), 18–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2018.1532078
31.
GidyczC. A.RichC. L.OrchowskiL.KingC.MillerA. K. (2006). The evaluation of a sexual assault self-defense and risk-reduction program for college women: A prospective study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30(2), 173–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00280
32.
GoldsteinR. B.SmithS. M.ChouS. P.SahaT. D.JungJ.ZhangH.PickeringR. P.June RuanW.HuangB.GrantB. F. (2016). The epidemiology of DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: Results from the national epidemiological survey on alcohol and related conditions-lll. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 51(8), 1137–1148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-016-1208-5
GuinaJ.NahhasR. W.SuttonP.FarnsworthS. (2018). The influence of trauma type and timing on PTSD symptoms. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 206(1), 72–76. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000730
35.
HayesA. F. (2022). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (3rd ed). Guilford.
36.
HickmanS. E.MuehlenhardC. L. (1997). College women's fears and precautionary behaviors relating to acquaintance rape and stranger rape. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(4), 527–547. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00129.x
37.
HollandE.KovalP.StratemeyerM.ThomsonF.HaslamN. (2017). Sexual objectification in women's daily lives: A smartphone ecological momentary assessment study. British Journal of Social Psychology, 56(2), 314–333. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12152
38.
Holmes, S. C., Facemire, V. C., & DaFonseca, A. M. (2016). Expanding Criterion A for posttraumatic stress disorder: Considering the deleterious impact of oppression. Traumatology, 22(4), 314–321. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000104
39.
hooksb. (1981). Ain't I a woman: Black women and feminism. South End Press.
40.
HughesM.KiecoltK. J.KeithV. M.DemoD. H. (2015). Racial identity and well-being among African Americans. Social Psychology Quarterly, 78(1), 25–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/0190272514554043
41.
JewellK. S. (1993). From Mammy to Miss America and beyond: Cultural images and the shaping of U.S. social policy. Routledge.
42.
JohnsonS. M.MurphyM. J.GidyczC. A. (2017). Reliability and validity of the sexual experiences survey–short forms victimization and perpetration. Violence and Victims, 32(1), 78–92. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-15-00110
43.
KilpatrickD.ResnickH.RuggieroK.ConoscentiL.McCaluleyJ. (2007). Drug-facilitated, incapacitated, and forcible rape: A national study. U.S. Department of Justice. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/219181.pdf
44.
KossM. P.AbbeyA.CampbellR.CookS.NorrisJ.TestaM.UllmanS.WestC.WhiteJ. (2007). Revising the SES: A collaborative process to improve assessment of sexual aggression and victimization. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(4), 357–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00385.x
45.
KozeeH. B.TylkaT. L.Augustus-HorvathC. L.DenchikA. (2007). Development and psychometric evaluation of the interpersonal sexual objectification scale. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(2), 176–189. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.0035
46.
LewisJ. A.MendenhallR.HarwoodS. A.HunttM. B. (2013). Coping with gendered racial microaggressions among black women college students. Journal of African American Studies, 17(1), 51–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-012-9219-0
47.
LewisJ. A.NevilleH. A. (2015). Construction and initial validation of the gendered racial microaggressions scale for black women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(2), 289–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000062
48.
LewisJ. A.WilliamsM. G.PeppersE. J.GadsonC. A. (2017). Applying intersectionality to explore the relations between gendered racism and health among black women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(5), 475–486. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000231
49.
LittletonH. L.Grills-TaquechelA. E.BuckK. S.RosmanL.DoddJ. C. (2013). Health risk behavior and sexual assault among ethnically diverse women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(1), 7–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312451842
50.
LittletonH. L.UllmanS. E. (2013). PTSD symptomatology and hazardous drinking as risk factors for sexual assault revictimization: Examination in European American and African American women. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(3), 345–353. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21807
51.
MasonG. E.UllmanS.LongS. E.LongL.StarzynskiL. (2009). Social support and risk of sexual assault revictimization. Journal of Community Psychology, 37(1), 58–72. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20270
52.
MatsuzakaS.JamisonL.AveryL. R.SchmidtK. M.StantonA. G.DebnamK. (2022). Gendered racial microaggressions scale: Measurement invariance across sexual orientation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 46(4), 518–530. https://doi.org/10.1177/03616843221118339
53.
McCauleyH. L.CampbellR.BuchananN. T.MoylanC. A. (2019). Advancing theory, methods, and dissemination in sexual violence research to build a more equitable future: An intersectional, community-engaged approach. Violence Against Women, 25(16), 1906–1931. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219875823
54.
MekawiY.CarterS.BrownB.Martinez de AndinoA.FaniN.MichopoulosV.PowersA. (2021). Interpersonal trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder among black women: Does racial discrimination matter?Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 22(2), 154–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2020.1869098
55.
Miles-McLeanH.LissM.ErchullM. J.RobertsonC. M.HagermanC.GnolebaM. A.PappL. J. (2015). Stop looking at me!” Interpersonal sexual objectification as a source of insidious trauma. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 39(3), 363–374. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684314561018
56.
MoodyA. T.LewisJ. A. (2019). Gendered racial microaggressions and traumatic stress symptoms among black women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 43(2), 201–214. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684319828288
57.
MoradiB.HuangY.-P. (2008). Objectification theory and psychology of women: A decade of advances and future directions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32(4), 377–398. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00452.x
58.
MuehlenhardC. L.PetersonZ. D.HumphreysT. P.JozkowskiK. N. (2017). Evaluating the one-in-five statistic: Women’s risk of sexual assault while in college. The Journal of Sex Research, 54(4-5), 549–576. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1295014
59.
NadalK. L.GriffinK. E.WongY.HamitS.RasmusM. (2014). The impact of racial microaggressions on mental health: Counseling implications for clients of color. Journal of Counseling & Development, 92(1), 57–66. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00130.x
60.
OrchowskiL. M.GidyczC. A.RaffleH. (2008). Evaluation of a sexual assault risk reduction and self-defense program: A prospective analysis of a revised protocol. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32(2), 204–218. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00425.x
61.
PegramS. E.AbbeyA. (2019). Associations between sexual assault severity and psychological and physical health outcomes: Similarities and differences among African American and Caucasian survivors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(19), 4020–4040. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516673626
62.
PerryB. L.HarpK. L.OserC. B. (2013). Racial and gender discrimination in the stress process: Implications for African American women’s health and well-being. Sociological Perspectives, 56(1), 25–48. https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2012.56.1.25
63.
ReadJ. P.OuimetteP.WhiteJ.ColderC.FarrowS. (2011). Rates of DSM-IV-TR trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder among newly matriculated college students. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research Practice, and Policy, 3(2), 148–156. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021260
64.
ResnickH. S.KilpatrickD. G.DanskyB. S.SaundersB. E.BestC. L. (1993). Prevalence of civilian trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a representative national sample of women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61(6), 984–991. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.61.6.984
65.
RobertsA. L.AustinS. B.CorlissH. L.VandermorrisA. K.KoenenK. C. (2010). Pervasive trauma exposure among U.S. sexual orientation minority adults and risk of posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Public Health, 100(12), 2433–2441. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.168971
66.
RootM. P. P. (1992). Reconstructing the impact of trauma on personality. In BrownL. S.BallouM. (Eds.), Personality and psychopathology: Feminist reappraisals (pp. 229–265). Guilford.
67.
RowlandG. E.MekawiY.MichopoulosV.PowersA.FaniN.BradleyB.ResslerK. J.JovanovicT.StevensJ. S. (2022). Distinctive impacts of sexual trauma versus non-sexual trauma on PTSD profiles in highly trauma-exposed, black women. Journal of Affective Disorders, 317, 329–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.08.099
68.
SabinaC.HoL. Y. (2014). Campus and college victim responses to sexual assault and dating violence: Disclosure, service utilization, and service provision. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15(3), 201–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014521322
69.
SinclairJ.SinclairL.OtienoE.MulingeM.KapphahnC.GoldenN. H. (2013). A self-defense program reduces the incidence of sexual assault in Kenyan adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(3), 374–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.04.009
70.
SpohnR.WrightE. M.PetersonJ. C. (2016). Rape and mental health outcomes among women: Examining the moderating effects of “healthy” fear levels. Violence Against Women, 23(9), 1055–1075. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801216655625
71.
StantonA. G.AveryL. R.MatsuzakaS.EspinelS. (2022). Black women's experiences of gendered racial sexual objectification, body image, and depressive symptoms. Body Image, 41, 443–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.04.014
72.
SueD. W.AlsaidiS.AwadM. N.GlaeserE.CalleC. Z.MendezN. (2019). Disarming racial microaggressions: Microintervention strategies for targets, white allies, and bystanders. American Psychologist, 74(1), 128–142. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000296
73.
SueD. W.CapodilupoC. M.TorinoG. C.BucceriJ. M.HolderA.NadalK. L.EsquilinM. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271
74.
SzymanskiD. M.MoffittL. B.CarrE. R. (2011). Sexual objectification of women: Advances to theory and research. The Counseling Psychologist, 39(1), 6–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000010378402
75.
TabachnickB. G.FidellL. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Pearson.
76.
UllmanS. E. (2023). Correlates of social reactions to victims’ disclosures of sexual assault and intimate partner violence: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(1), 29–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380211016013
77.
UllmanS. E.FilipasH. H. (2001). Predictors of PTSD symptom severity and social reactions in sexual assault victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14(2), 369–389. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011125220522
78.
UllmanS. E.LorenzK. (2020). African American sexual assault survivors and mental health help-seeking: A mixed methods study. Violence Against Women, 26(15-16), 1941–1965. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219892650
79.
UllmanS. E.TownsendS. M.FilipasH. H.StarzynskiL. L. (2007). Structural models of the relations of assault severity, social support, avoidance coping, self-blame, and PTSD among sexual assault survivors. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(1), 23–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00328.x
80.
WatsonL. B.AncisJ. R.WhiteD. N.NazariN. (2013). Racial identity buffers African American women from body image problems and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(3), 337–350. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312474799
81.
WatsonL. B.HendersonJ. (2022). The relation between gendered racial microaggressions and traumatic stress among highly educated black women. The Counseling Psychologist, 51(1), 210–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/00110000221133104
82.
WatsonL. B.MarszalekJ. M.DispenzaF.DavidsC. M. (2015). Understanding the relationships among white and African American women’s sexual objectification experiences, physical safety anxiety, and psychological distress. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 72(3-4), 91–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0444-y
83.
WatsonL. B.RobinsonD.DispenzaF.NazariN. (2012). African American women's sexual objectification experiences: A qualitative study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36(4), 458–475. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312454724
84.
WeathersF. W.LitzB. T.KeaneT. M.PalmieriP. A.MarxB. P.SchnurrP. P. (2013). The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs. http://www.ptsd.va.gov
85.
WeissN. H.SchickM. R.ReyesM. E.ThomasE. D.Tobar-SantamariaA.ContractorA. A. (2021). Ethnic-racial identity and posttraumatic stress disorder: The role of emotional avoidance among trauma-exposed community individuals. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 13(1), 35–43. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000974
86.
WeistM. D.KinneyL.TaylorL. K.Pollitt-HillJ.BryantY.AnthonyL.WilkersonJ. (2014). African American and white women’s experience of sexual assault and services for sexual assault. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 23(9), 901–916. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2014.953715
87.
WilliamsM. G.LewisJ. A. (2019). Gendered racial microaggressions and depressive symptoms among black women: A moderated mediation model. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 43(3), 368–380. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684319832511
88.
Williams, M. T., Osman, M., Gran-Ruaz, S., & Lopez, J. (2021). Intersection of racism and PTSD: Assessment and treatment of racial stress and trauma. Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry, 8(4), 167–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40501-021-00250-2
89.
WrightL. N.LewisJ. A. (2020). Is physical activity a buffer? Gendered racial microaggressions and anxiety among African American women. Journal of Black Psychology, 46(2-3), 122–143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798420929112
90.
YaegerD.HimmelfarbN.CammackA.MintzJ. (2006). DSM-IV diagnosed posttraumatic stress disorder in women veterans with and without military sexual trauma. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 21(3), 65–69. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1497.2006.00377.x
