The limited connectivity of vehicles presents a notable challenge, as their inability to establish communication with other vehicles and pedestrians can lead to safety concerns, particularly for vulnerable road users (VRUs). The Infrastructure-to-Pedestrian (I2P) communication pathway can play a vital role in mitigating these safety concerns, as implementing I2P is expected to significantly enhance safety for pedestrians, cyclists, and motorcyclists. The Third Generation Partnership Program (3GPP) introduced cellular vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication with the release for 3GPP Release 14 in 2017. In this paper, we conduct an extensive review of V2I and I2P communication, and then present a Long-Term Evolution (LTE)-I2P communication architecture. We later describe key ideas of software-defined networks and their concepts for I2P services. Additionally, we conduct a field test of I2P LTE-based communication and assess its feasibility. The urban connected testbed in downtown Chattanooga, “MLK Smart Corridor,” services is the experimental platform for this assessment. Performance indicators like average end-to-end (E2E) latency and packet delivery ratio (PDR) are used for comparison.
KohutF. A.Pew Research Center. Nonpartisan American Think Tank Based in Washington, D.C., 2023. https://www.pewresearch.org/.
3.
KawashitaY.WadaT.Pedestrian-Vehicle Collision Avoidance Support System Corresponding to Multiple Pedestrians. Proc., 2021 IEEE 10th Global Conference on Consumer Electronics (GCCE), Kyoto, Japan, IEEE, New York, 2021, pp. 312–313.
4.
ZadehR. B.GhateeM.EftekhariH. R., Three-Phases Smartphone-Based Warning System to Protect Vulnerable Road Users Under Fuzzy Conditions. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Vol. 19, No. 7, 2017, pp. 2086–2098.
5.
LinC.-H.ChenY.-T.ChenJ.-J.ShihW.-C.ChenW.-T.psafety: A Collision Prevention System for Pedestrians Using Smartphone. Proc., 2016 IEEE 84th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC-Fall), Montreal, QC, Canada, IEEE, New York, 2016, pp. 1–5.
6.
LiC.-Y.SalinasG.HuangP.-H.TuG.-H.HsuG.-H.HsiehT.-Y.V2PSense: Enabling Cellular-Based V2P Collision Warning Service Through Mobile Sensing. Proc., 2018 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Kansas City, MO, IEEE, New York, 2018, pp. 1–6.
7.
MerdrignacP.ShagdarO.NashashibiF.Fusion of Perception and V2p Communication Systems for the Safety of Vulnerable Road Users. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Vol. 18, No. 7, 2016, pp. 1740–1751.
8.
BagheriM.SiekkinenM.NurminenJ. K.Cloud-Based Pedestrian Road-Safety with Situation-Adaptive Energy-Efficient Communication. IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Magazine, Vol. 8, No. 3, 2016, pp. 45–62.
9.
FlorinR.TimofteA.BalanA.SanduF.LTE Communications Using an SDR Platform. Proc., 2020 13th International Conference on Communications (COMM), Bucharest, Romania, IEEE, New York, 2020, pp. 393–396.
10.
KimI.UmJ.ParkS.Implementation of SDR-Based 5G NR Cell Search Equipment. Proc., 2020 22nd International Conference on Advanced Communication Technology (ICACT), Phoenix Park, Korea (South), IEEE, New York, 2020, pp. 350–353.
11.
ZhangJ.WangB.WangD.FuS.LuK.WanY.XieJ.An SDR-Based LTE System for Unmanned Aerial Systems. Proc., 2022 International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (ICUAS), Dubrovnik, Croatia, IEEE, New York, 2022, pp. 1448–1454.
12.
Tahmasbi-SarvestaniA.MahjoubH. N.FallahY. P.Moradi-PariE.AbuchaarO.Implementation and Evaluation of a Cooperative Vehicle-to-Pedestrian Safety Application. IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Magazine, Vol. 9, No. 4, 2017, pp. 62–75.
13.
WuX.MiucicR.YangS.Al-StouhiS.MisenerJ.BaiS.ChanW.-h.Cars Talk to Phones: A DSRC Based Vehicle-Pedestrian Safety System. Proc., 2014 IEEE 80th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2014-Fall), Vancouver, BC, Canada, IEEE, New York, 2014, pp. 1–7.
14.
GonçalvesF.RibeiroB.SantosJ.GamaO.CastroF.FernandesJ.CostaA., et al. Enhancing VRUs Safety with V2P communications: an experiment with hidden pedestrians on a crosswalk. Proc., 2022 14th International Congress on Ultra Modern Telecommunications and Control Systems and Workshops (ICUMT), Valencia, Spain, IEEE, New York, 2022, pp. 96–103.
15.
MislmaniN. A.SeetharamdooD., Metasurface Antenna System for Pedestrian to Vehicle Communications Based on IEEE 802.11 p: Design and Evaluation. Proc., 2022 16th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP), Madrid, Spain, IEEE, New York, 2022, pp. 1–5.
16.
WuM.MaB.LiuZ.XiuL.ZhangL.BLE-Horn: A Smartphone-Based Bluetooth Low Energy Vehicle-to-Pedestrian Safety System. Proc., 2017 9th International Conference on Wireless Communications and Signal Processing (WCSP), Nanjing, China, IEEE, New York, 2017, pp. 1–6.
17.
AnayaJ. J.TalaveraE.GiménezD.GómezN.JiménezF.NaranjoJ. E.Vulnerable Road Users Detection Using V2X Communications. Proc., 2015 IEEE 18th International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Gran Canaria, Spain, IEEE, New York, 2015, pp. 107–112.
18.
EngelS.KratzschC.DavidK.Car2Pedestrian-Communication: Protection of Vulnerable Road Users Using Smartphones. In Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2013: Smart Systems for Safe and Green Vehicles (Fischer-WolfarthJ.MeyerG. eds.), Springer, Heidelberg, 2013, pp. 31–41.
19.
ThielenD.LorenzT.HannibalM.KösterF.PlättnerJ., A Feasibility Study on a Cooperative Safety Application for Cyclists Crossing Intersections. Proc., 2012 15th International IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Anchorage, AK, IEEE, New York, 2012, pp. 1197–1204.
20.
SugimotoC.NakamuraY.HashimotoT.Prototype of Pedestrian-to-Vehicle Communication System for the Prevention of Pedestrian Accidents Using Both 3G Wireless and WLAN Communication. Proc., 2008 3rd International Symposium on Wireless Pervasive Computing, Santorini, Greece, IEEE, New York, 2008, pp. 764–767.
21.
NiaN. G.KaplanogluE.NasabA., EMG-Based Hand Gestures Classification Using Machine Learning Algorithms. Proc., SoutheastCon 2023, Orlando, FL, IEEE, New York, 2023, pp. 787–792.
22.
NguyenT. T.NguyenH. H.SartipiM.FisichellaM., Multi-Vehicle Multi-Camera Tracking with Graph-Based Tracklet Features. IEEE Transactions on Multimedia, Vol. 26, 2023, pp. 972–983.
23.
NguyenT. T.NguyenH. H.SartipiM.FisichellaM., Real-time multi-vehicle multi-camera tracking with graph-based tracklet features. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2024. 2678: 296–308.
24.
MiaoL.VirtusioJ. J.HuaK.-L.PC5-Based Cellular-V2X Evolution and Deployment. Sensors, Vol. 21, No. 3, 2021, p. 843.
25.
NkenyereyeL.NkenyereyeL.IslamS. R.ChoiY.-H.BilalM.JangJ.-W., Software-Defined Network-Based Vehicular Networks: A Position Paper on Their Modeling and Implementation. Sensors, Vol. 19, No. 17, 2019, p. 3788.
26.
LiuW.MuramatsuS.OkuboY.Cooperation of V2I/P2I Communication and Roadside Radar Perception for the Safety of Vulnerable Road Users. Proc., 2018 16th International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems Telecommunications (ITST), Lisboa, Portugal, IEEE, New York, 2018, pp. 1–7.
27.
TahirM. N.MäenpääK.HippiM., Pedestrian Motion Detection & Pedestrian Communication (P2I & V2P). Proc., 2020 International Conference on Software, Telecommunications and Computer Networks (SoftCOM), Split, Croatia, IEEE, New York, 2020, pp. 1–3.
28.
YangJ.PoellabauerC.MitraP.NeubeckerC.Beyond Beaconing: Emerging Applications and Challenges of BLE. Ad Hoc Networks, Vol. 97, 2020, p. 102015.
29.
García-OrtizJ. C.Silvestre-BlanesJ.Sempere-PayáV.Experimental Application of Bluetooth Low Energy Connectionless in Smart Cities. Electronics, Vol. 10, No. 22, 2021, p. 2735.
30.
MouradA.MuhammadS.Al KalaaM. O.RefaiH. H.HoeherP. A.On the Performance of WLAN and Bluetooth for In-Car Infotainment Systems. Vehicular Communications, Vol. 10, 2017, pp. 1–12.
31.
LiuZ.PuL.MengZ.YangX.ZhuK.ZhangL.POFS: A Novel Pedestrian-Oriented Forewarning System for Vulnerable Pedestrian Safety. Proc., 2015 International Conference on Connected Vehicles and Expo (ICCVE), Shenzhen, China, IEEE, New York, 2015, pp. 100–105.
32.
ChavhanS.KumarS.GuptaD.AlkhayyatA.KhannaA.ManikandanR.Edge-Empowered Communication based Vehicle and Pedestrian Trajectory Perception System for Smart Cities. IEEE Internet of Things Journal, Vol. 10, No. 21, 2023, pp. 18951–18960.
33.
SewalkarP.KrugS.SeitzJ.Towards 802.11 p-Based Vehicle-to-Pedestrian Communication for Crash Prevention Systems. Proc., 2017 9th International Congress on Ultra Modern Telecommunications and Control Systems and Workshops (ICUMT), Munich, Germany, IEEE, New York, 2017, pp. 404–409.
34.
SaponaraS.NeriB.FanucciL.CiarpiG.Architecture Analysis and Design for 802.11 p/Cellular-V2X Wireless Networking with Embedded Cybersecurity. Proc., Shaping Our Future with Electronics: 49th Annual Meeting of the Società Italiana di Elettronica (SIE 2017), Società Italiana di Elettronica, Italy, 2017, pp. 1–2.
35.
BarrancoA. C.GálvezJ. A. Y.ArmijoJ. A.Aguayo-TorresM. C.SiciliaJ. C. R.GómezG.Overview of LTE for Vehicular Communications. Wireless Personal Communications, Vol. 113, 2020, pp. 1471–1494.
36.
EckermannF.KahlertM.WietfeldC.Performance Analysis of C-V2X Mode 4 Communication Introducing an Open-Source C-V2X Simulator. Proc., 2019 IEEE 90th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2019-Fall), Honolulu, HI, IEEE, New York, 2019, pp. 1–5.
37.
GonzálezE. E.Garcia-RogerD.MonserratJ. F.LTE/NR V2X Communication Modes and Future Requirements of Intelligent Transportation Systems Based on MR-DC Architectures. Sustainability, Vol. 14, No. 7, 2022, p. 3879.
38.
KarouiM.FreitasA.ChalhoubG.Performance Comparison Between LTE-V2X and ITS-G5 Under Realistic Urban Scenarios. Proc., 2020 IEEE 91st Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2020-Spring), Antwerp, Belgium, IEEE, New York, 2020, pp. 1–7.
39.
MirZ. H.FilaliF.On the Performance Comparison Between IEEE 802.11 p and LTE-Based Vehicular Networks. Proc., 2014 IEEE 79th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Spring), Seoul, Korea (South), IEEE, New York, 2014, pp. 1–5.
40.
MaglogiannisV.NaudtsD.HadiwardoyoS.Van Den AkkerD.Marquez-BarjaJ.MoermanI., Experimental V2X Evaluation for C-V2X and ITS-G5 Technologies in a Real-Life Highway Environment. IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management, Vol. 19, No. 2, 2021, pp. 1521–1538.
41.
HematianA.YuW.GriffithD.GolmieN.Performance Assessment of Smart Meter Traffic over LTE Network Using SDR Testbed. Proc., 2019 International Conference on Computing, Networking and Communications (ICNC), Honolulu, HI, IEEE, New York, 2019, pp. 408–412.
42.
HessarM.NajafiA.IyerV.GollakotaS.TinySDR: Low-Power SDR Platform for Over-the-Air Programmable IoT Testbeds. Proc., 17th USENIX Symposium on Networked Systems Design and Implementation (NSDI 20), Santa Clara, CA, 2020, pp. 1031–1046.
43.
FlanaganS. K.PengX.-H.YusoffI.HeJ.Empirical Investigation of SDR-Based DSRC Communication. Proc., 2020 IEEE 91st Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2020-Spring), Antwerp, Belgium, IEEE, New York, 2020, pp. 1–5.
44.
DanysL.MartinekR.JarosR.BarosJ.SimonikP.SnaselV.Enhancements of SDR-Based FPGA System for V2X-VLC Communications. Computers, Materials & Continua, Vol. 68, No. 3, 2021, p. 3629.
45.
HarrisA.StovallJ.SartipiM.MLK Smart Corridor: An Urban Testbed for Smart City Applications. Proc., 2019 IEEE International Conference on Big Data (Big Data), Los Angeles, CA, IEEE, New York, 2019, pp. 3506–3511.
46.
KumarasamyV. K.SarojA. J.LiangY.WuD.HunterM. P.GuinA.SartipiM.Integration of Decentralized Graph-Based Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning with Digital Twin for Traffic Signal Optimization. Symmetry, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2024, p. 448.
47.
SewalkarP.SeitzJ.Vehicle-to-Pedestrian Communication for Vulnerable Road Users: Survey, Design Considerations, and Challenges. Sensors, Vol. 19, No. 2, 2019, p. 358.
48.
ZhangC.WeiJ.QuS.HuangC.DaiJ.FuP.WangZ.LiX.Implementation of a V2P-Based VRU Warning System with C-V2X Technology. IEEE Access, Vol. 11, 2023, pp. 69903–69915.
49.
PanR.JieL.ZhangX.PangS.WangH.WeiZ.A V2P Collision Risk Warning Method Based on LSTM in IOV. Security and Communication Networks, Vol. 2022, 2022, p. 7507573.
50.
PanR.JieL.ZhaoX.WangH.YangJ.SongJ.Active Obstacle Avoidance Trajectory Planning for Vehicles Based on Obstacle Potential Field and MPC in V2P Scenario. Sensors, Vol. 23, No. 6, 2023, p. 3248.
51.
ZoghlamiC.KacimiR.DhaouR.5G-Enabled V2X Communications for Vulnerable Road Users Safety Applications: A Review. Wireless Networks, Vol. 29, No. 3, 2023, pp. 1237–1267.
52.
NapolitanoA.CecchettiG.GiannoneF.RuscelliA.CiverchiaF.KondepuK.ValcarenghiL.CastoldiP.Implementation of a MEC-Based Vulnerable Road User Warning System. Proc., 2019 AEIT International Conference of Electrical and Electronic Technologies for Automotive (AEIT AUTOMOTIVE), Turin, Italy, IEEE, New York, 2019, pp. 1–6.
53.
NevigatoN.TropeaM.De RangoF.Collision Avoidance Proposal in a MEC Based VANET Environment. Proc., 2020 IEEE/ACM 24th International Symposium on Distributed Simulation and Real Time Applications (DS-RT), Prague, Czech Republic, IEEE, New York, 2020, pp. 1–7.
54.
MalinvernoM.AvinoG.CasettiC.ChiasseriniC. F.MalandrinoF.ScarpinaS.Edge-Based Collision Avoidance for Vehicles and Vulnerable Users: An Architecture Based on MEC. IEEE Vehicular Technology Magazine, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2019, pp. 27–35.
55.
BarmpounakisS.TsiatsiosG.PapadakisM.MitsianisE.KoursioumpasN.AlonistiotiN.Collision Avoidance in 5G Using MEC and NFV: The Vulnerable Road User Safety Use Case. Computer Networks, Vol. 172, 2020, p. 107150.
56.
YakushevaN.ProletarskyA.BasarabM.Pedestrian-Vehicle Collision Avoidance Strategy for NLOS Conditions. Proc., 2018 26th Telecommunications Forum (TELFOR), Belgrade, Serbia, IEEE, New York, 2018, pp. 1–4.
HajisamiA.LansfordJ.DingankarA.MisenerJ., A Tutorial on the LTE-V2X Direct Communication. IEEE Open Journal of Vehicular Technology, Vol. 3, 2022, pp. 388–398.
61.
PetrovT.SevcikL.PoctaP.DadoM.A Performance Benchmark for Dedicated Short-Range Communications and LTE-Based Cellular-V2X in the Context of Vehicle-to-Infrastructure Communication and Urban Scenarios. Sensors, Vol. 21, No. 15, 2021, p. 5095.
62.
3GPP. “Service requirements for enhanced V2X scenarios.”Technical Specification (TS) 22.186, 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) (2019). European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), https://www.3gpp.org.
