Recent years have witnessed a burgeoning of applications of GIS which grant legitimacy to indigenous geographical knowledge as well as to `official' spatial data. By incorporating various forms of community participation these newer framings of Geographical Information Systems as `Participatory GIS' (PGIS) offer a response to the critiques of GIS which were prevalent in the 1990s. This paper reviews PGIS in the context of the `democratization of GIS'. It explores aspects of the control and ownership of geographical information, representations of local and indigenous knowledge, scale and scaling up, web-based approaches and some potential future technical and academic directions.
Abbot, J., Chambers, R., Dunn, C., Harris, T., de Merode, E., Porter, G., Townsend, J. and Weiner, D.1998: Participatory GIS: opportunity or oxymoron? PLA Notes33, 27—34.
2.
Aberley, D. and Sieber, R.2002: Public Participation GIS (PPGIS) Guiding Principles First International PPGIS Conference. Held by URISA at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 20—22 July.
3.
Aitken, S.C.2002: Public participation, technological discourses and the scale of GIS. In Craig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems, London: Taylor and Francis , 357—66.
4.
Aitken, S.C. and Michel, S.M.1995: Who contrives the `real' in GIS? Geographic information, planning and critical theory. Cartography and Geographic Information Systems22, 17—29.
5.
Balram, S.and Dragićević, S.2006:Modeling collaborative GIS processes using soft systems theory, UML and object oriented design. Transactions in GIS10, 199—218.
6.
Barndt, M.1998: Public Participation GIS — barriers to implementation . Cartography and Geographic Information Systems25, 105—12.
7.
— 2002: A model for evaluating public participation GIS. In Craig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems , London: Taylor and Francis, 346—56.
8.
Berntzen, L., Steinmann, R. and Krek, A.2005: Innovative use of Geographical Information Systems to facilitate collaboration between the government and citizens. eChallenges, 19—21 October, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
9.
Bishop, I.D., Barry, M., McPherson, E., Nascarella, J., Urquhart, K. and Escobar, F.2002: Meeting the need for GIS skills in developing countries: the case of informal settlements. Transactions in GIS6, 311—26.
10.
Blakemore, M.2005: All things `e' with a little bit of `i', and hopefully some `d' and `p': basic building blocks and the digitization of European public administrations. International Workshop: The Digitization of European Public Administrations: What's the Political Dimension of Electronic Governance? EIPA, Maastricht, The Netherlands, 31 March—1 April.
11.
Bond, C.2002: The Cherokee Nation and tribal uses of GIS. In Craig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems, London: Taylor and Francis, 283—93.
12.
Butler, D.2006: Virtual globes: the web-wide world. Nature439, 776—78.
13.
Carver, S.2003: The future of participatory approaches using geographic information: developing a research agenda for the 21st century. Journal of the Urban and Regional Information Systems Association15, 61—71.
14.
Casey, L. and Pederson, T.2002: Mapping Philadelphia's neighbourhoods. In Craig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems, London: Taylor and Francis, 65—76.
15.
Chrisman, N.R.1999:Whatdoes`GIS'mean?Transactions in GIS3, 175—86.
16.
Cinderby, S.1999: Geographic information systems (GIS) for participation: the future of environmental GIS? International Journal of Environmental Pollution11, 304—15.
17.
Cinderby, S. and Forrester, J.2005: Facilitating the local governance of air pollution using GIS for participation. Applied Geography25, 143—58.
18.
Cooke, B. and Kothari, U.2001: The case for participation as tyranny. In Cooke, B. and Kothari, U. , editors, Participation: the new tyranny?, London: Zed Books, 1—15.
19.
Couclelis, H.2003: The certainty of uncertainty: GIS and the limits of geographic knowledge. Transactions in GIS7, 165—75.
20.
Craig, W.J. and Elwood, S.A.1998: How and why community groups use maps and geographic information . Cartography and Geographic Information Systems25, 95—104.
21.
Craig, W., Harris, T. and Weiner, D.1999: Empowerment, marginalization and Public Participation GIS. Report of Varenius Workshop, Santa Barbara, California, 15—17 October.
22.
— 2002a: Conclusion. In Craig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems, London: Taylor and Francis, 367—72.
23.
— editors 2002b: Community participation and Geographic Information Systems . London: Taylor and Francis.
24.
Curry, M.R.2005: Meta-theory/many theories. In C astree, N., Rogers, A. and Sherman, D., editors, Questioning geography: fundamental debates, Malden, MA: Blackwell, 167—86.
25.
Dragićević, S.2004: The potential of web-based GIS. Journal of Geographical Systems6, 79—81.
26.
Dunn, C.E., Atkins, P.J., Blakemore, M.J. and Townsend, J.G.1999: Teaching geographical information handling skills for lower-income countries. Transactions in GIS3, 319—32.
27.
Dunn, C.E., Atkins, P.J. and Townsend, J.G.1997: GIS for development: a contradiction in terms?Area29, 151—59.
28.
Dykes, J.2000: An approach to virtual environments for visualization using linked geo-referenced panoramic imagery. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems24, 127—52.
29.
Elwood, S.A.2002a: GIS use in community planning: amultidimensionalanalysisofempowerment . Environment and Planning A34, 905—22.
30.
— 2002b: The impacts of GIS use for neighbourhood revitalization in Minneapolis. In Craig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems, London: Taylor and Francis , 77—88.
31.
— 2006:Negotiatingknowledgeproduction:the everyday inclusions, exclusions, and contradictions of participatory GIS research. The Professional Geographer58, 197—208.
32.
Ghose, R.2001: Use of information technology for community empowerment: transforming Geographic Information Systems into Community Information Systems . Transactions in GIS5, 141—63.
33.
Gold, C.M.2006: What is GIS and what is not?Transactions in GIS10, 505—19.
34.
Goodchild, M.F.2000: The current status of GIS and spatial analysis. Journal of Geographical Systems2, 5—10.
35.
— 2002: Foreword. In Craig, W.J. , Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems, London: Taylor and Francis, xix—xxiii.
36.
Grenier, L.1998: Working with indigenous knowledge. Otawa: International Development Research Centre.
37.
Griffiths, M.2004: e-Citizens: blogging as democratic practice. Electronic Journal of e-Government2(3), 155—65.
38.
Haklay, M. and Tobon, C.2003: Usability evaluation and PPGIS: towards a user-centred design approach. International Journal of Geographical Information Science17, 577—92.
39.
Harmsworth, G.1998: Indigenous values and GIS: a method and a framework. Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor6(3).
40.
Harris, T. and Weiner, D.1996: GIS and Society: the social implications of how people, space, and environment are represented in GIS. Scientific Report for the Initiative 19 Specialist Meeting, 2—5 March, Koinonia Retreat Center, South Haven, Minnesota. National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis Report 96—7.
41.
— 1998: Empowerment, marginalization, and `communityintegrated' GIS. Cartography and Geographic Information Systems25, 67—76.
42.
— 2002: Implementing a community-integrated GIS: perspectives from South African fieldwork. In Craig, W.J. , Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems, London: Taylor and Francis, 246—58.
43.
Harris, T.M., Weiner, D., Warner, T.A. and Levin, R.1995: Pursuing social goals through participatory geographic information systems. In Pickles, J., editor, Ground truth: the social implications of geographic information systems, New York: Guilford, 196—222.
44.
Hassan, M.M.2005: Arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh: spatial mitigation planning with GIS and public participation. Health Policy74, 247—60.
45.
Henkel, H. and Stirrat, R.2001: Participation as spiritual duty; empowerment as secular subjection. In Cooke, B. and Kothari, U., editors, Participation: the new tyranny? London: Zed Books, 168—84.
46.
Howells, J.1996: Tacit knowledge, innovation and technology transfer. Technology Analysis and Strategic Management8, 91—106.
47.
Jankowski, P., Nyerges, T., Robischon, S., Ramsey, K. and Tuthill, D.2006: Design considerations and evaluation of a collaborative, spatio-temporal decision support system. Transacations in GIS10, 335—54.
48.
Jordan, G.2002: GIS for community forestry user groups in Nepal: putting people before the technology. In Craig, W.J. , Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems, London: Taylor and Francis, 232—45.
49.
King, B.H.2002: Towards a participatory GIS: evaluating case studies of Participatory Rural Appraisal and GIS in the developing world. Cartography and Geographic Information Science29, 43—52.
50.
Kingston, R.2002: Web-based PPGIS in the United Kingdom.$space$In Craig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems, London: Taylor and Francis, 101—12.
51.
Kingston, R., Carver, S., Evans, A. and Turton, I.2000: Web-based public participation geographical information systems: an aid to local environmental decision-making. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems24, 109—25.
52.
Kothari, U.2001: Power, knowledge and social control in participatory development . In Cooke, B. and Kothari, U., editors, Participation: the new tyranny?, London: Zed Books, 139—52.
53.
Kwan, M.-P.1998: Space-time and integral measures of individual accessibility: a comparative analysis using a point-based framework. Geographical Analysis30, 191—216.
54.
— 1999: Gender and individual access to urban opportunities: a study using space-time measures. The Professional Geographer51, 210—27.
55.
— 2002a: Feminist visualization: re-envisioning GIS as a method in feminist geographic research. Annals of the Association of American Geographers92, 645—61.
56.
— 2002b: Is GIS for women? Reflections on the critical discourse in the 1990s. Gender, Place and Culture9, 271—79.
57.
— 2002c: Introduction: feminist geography and GIS. Gender, Place and Culture9, 261—62.
58.
Kyem, P.A.K.2001 (published 2004): Power, participation and inflexible institutions: an examination of the challenges to community empowerment in participatory GIS applications. Cartographica38(3/4), 5—17.
59.
— 2002: Promoting local community participation in forest management through a PPGIS application in Southern Ghana. In C raig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems, London: Taylor and Francis, 218—31.
60.
— 2004: Of intractable conflicts and participatory GIS applications: the search for consensus amidst completingclaimsandinstitutionaldemands. Annals of the Association of American Geographers94, 37—57.
61.
Laituri, M.2002: Ensuring access to GIS for marginal societies. In Craig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems , London: Taylor and Francis, 270—82.
62.
Lake, R.W.1993: Planning and applied geography: positivism, ethics, and geographic information systems. Progress in Human Geography17, 404—13.
63.
Leitner, H., Elwood, S., Sheppard, E., McMaster, S. and McMaster, R.2000: Modes of GIS Provision and their appropriateness for neighborhood organizations: examples from Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota. Journal of the Urban and Regional Information Systems Association12, 43—56.
64.
Liebenberg, L., Steventon, L., Benadie, K. and Minye, J.1999: Rhino tracking with the Cyber Tracker field computer. Pachyderm27, 59—61.
65.
Longley, P.A.2000: The academic success of GIS in geography: problems and prospects. Journal of Geographical Systems2, 37—42.
66.
Longley, P.A., Goodchild, M.F., Maguire, D.J. and Rhind, D.W.2005: Geographic Information Systems and science. Chichester: Wiley.
67.
MacEachren, A.M.1998: Cartography, GIS and the World Wide Web. Progress in Human Geography22, 575—85.
68.
— 2000: Cartography and GIS: facilitating collaboration. Progress in Human Geography24, 445—56.
69.
MacEachren, A.M. and Brewer, I.2004: Developing a conceptual framework for visually-enabled geo-collaboration. International Journal of Geographical Information Science18, 1—34.
70.
MacEachren, A.M., Cai, G., Sharma,R., Rauschert, I., Brewer, I., Bolelli,L., Shaparenko, B., Fuhrmann, S. and Wang, H.2005: Enabling collaborative geoinformation access and decision-making through a natural, multimodal interface. International Journal of Geographical Information Science19, 293—317.
71.
McCall, M.K.2003: Seeking good governance in participatory-GIS: a review of processes and governance dimensions in applying GIS to participatory spatial planning. Habitat International27, 549—73.
72.
McCall, M.K. and Minang, P.2005: Assessing participatory GIS for community-based natural resource management: claiming community forests in Cameroon. Geographical Journal171, 340—56.
73.
Meredith, T.C., Yetman, G.G. and Frias, G.2002: Mexican and Canadian case studies of community-based spatial information management for biodiversity conservation. In Craig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems, London: Taylor and Francis, 205—17.
74.
Merrick, M.2003: Reflections on PPGIS: a view from the trenches. Journal of the Urban and Regional Information Systems Association15(2), 33—39.
75.
Negroponte, N.1995: Being digital. New York: Knopf.
76.
Nyerges, T.2005: Scaling-up as a grand challenge for Public Participation GIS. Directions Magazine, Magazine, 20 September. Retrieved 26 June 2007 fromhttp://www.directionsmag.com/article.php?article_id=1965
77.
Nyerges, T., Jankowski, P. and Drew, C.2002: Data-gathering strategies for social-behavioural research about participatory geographical information system use. International Journal of Geographical Information Science16, 1—22.
78.
Obermeyer, N.J.1998: The evolution of public participation GIS. Cartography and Geographic Information Systems25, 65—66.
79.
Openshaw, S.1991: A view on the GIS crisis in geography, or using GIS to put Humpty-Dumpty back together again. Environment and Planning A 23, 621—28.
80.
— 1992: Further thoughts on geography and GIS: a reply. Environment and Planning A 23, 463—66.
81.
Pain, R. and Francis, P.2003: Reflections on participatory research. Area35, 46—54.
82.
Pain, R., MacFarlane, R., Turner, K. and Gill, S.2006: `When, where, if, and but': qualifying GIS and the effect of streetlighting on crime and fear. Environment and Planning A 38, 2055—74.
83.
Pavlovskaya, M.E.2002: Mapping urban change and changing GIS: other views of economic restructuring. Gender, Place and Culture9, 281—89.
84.
Perkins, C.2003: Cartography: mapping theory. Progress in Human Geography27, 341—51.
85.
Pickles, J., editor 1995: Ground truth: the social and economic implications of Geographical Information Systems . New York: Guilford Press.
86.
— 1999: Arguments, debates, and dialogues: the GISsocial theory debate and the concern for alternatives. In Longley, P.A., Goodchild, M.F., Maguire, D.J. and Rhind, D.W., editors, Geographical Information Systems: principles and technical issues, New York: Wiley, 49—60.
87.
Polanyi, K.1944: The great transformation: the political and economic origins of our time. New York: Farrar and Rinehart (reprinted by Amereon in 1996).
88.
Rambaldi, G. and Callosa-Tarr, J.2000: Manual on Participatory 3-Dimensional Modelling for natural resource management. Essentials of Protected Area Management in the Philippines volume 7, NIPAP, PAWB-DENR, Philippines.
89.
— 2002: Participatory 3-Dimensional Modelling: guiding principles and applications. The Philippines: ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC).
90.
Rambaldi, G., Chambers, R., McCall, M. and Fox, J.2006: Practical ethics for PGIS practitioners, facilitators, technology intermediaries and researchers. PLA Notes54, 106—13.
91.
Robbins, P.2003: Beyond ground truth: GIS and the environmental knowledge of herders, professional foresters, and other traditional communities. Human Ecology31, 233—53.
92.
Rugg, R.D.2003: A framework for the use of geographic information in participatory community planning and development. Journal of the Urban and Regional Information Systems Association15(2), 75—80.
93.
Rundstrom, R.A.1995: GIS, indigenous peoples, and epistemological diversity . Cartography and Geographic Information Systems22, 45—57.
94.
Sanderson, E. and Kindon, S.2004: Progress in participatory development: opening up the possibility of knowledge through progressive participation. Progress in Development Studies4, 114—26.
95.
Schafer, W.A., Craig, H.G., Xiao, L., Coch, G. and Carroll, J.M.2005: Designing the next generation of distributed, geocollaborative tools. Cartography and Geographic Information Science32, 81—100.
96.
Schlossberg, M. and Shuford, E.2005: Delineating `Public' and `Participation' in PPGIS. Journal of the Urban and Regional Information Systems Association16, 15—26.
97.
Schroeder, P.1996: Report on Public Participation GIS Workshop. In Harris, T. and Weiner, D. , GIS and Society: The Social Implications of how People, Space, and Environment are Represented in GIS, Scientific Report for the Initiative 19 Specialist Meeting, 2—5 March, Koinonia Retreat Center, South Haven, Minnesota, National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis Report 96—7.
98.
Schuurman, N.2000: Trouble in the heartland: GIS and its critics in the 1990s . Progress in Human Geography24, 569—90.
99.
— 2003: The ghost in the machine: spatial data, informationandknowledgeinGIS . The Canadian Geographer47, 1—4.
100.
Schuurman, N. and Kwan, M.-P.2004: Guest editorial: Taking a walk on the social side of GIS . Cartographica39, 1—3.
101.
Schuurman, N. and Pratt, G.2002: Care of the subject: feminism and critiques of GIS. Gender, Place and Culture9, 291—99.
102.
Sheppard, E.1995: GIS and society: towards a research agenda. Cartography and Geographic Information Systems22, 5—16.
103.
Shiffer, M.J.2002: Spatial multimedia representations to support community participation. In Craig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community Participation and Geographic Information Systems, London: Taylor and Francis , 309—19.
104.
Sieber, R.E.2000: Conforming (to) the opposition: the social construction of geographical information systems in social movements. International Journal of GeographicalInformation Science14, 775—93.
105.
— 2001 (published 2004): A PPGIScience? Cartographica38(3/4), 1—4.
106.
— 2002: Geographic information systems in the environmental movement . In Craig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community Participation and Geographic Information Systems , London: Taylor and Francis, 153—72.
107.
— 2003: Public participation geographic information systems across borders. The Canadian Geographer47, 50—61.
108.
— 2004: Rewiring for a GIS/2. Cartographica39, 25—39.
109.
Sillitoe, P.1998: The development of indigenous knowledge. Current Anthropology39, 223—52.
110.
Smith, N.1992: History and philosophy of geography: real wars, theory wars. Progress in Human Geography16, 257—71.
111.
Stonich, S.C.1998:$space$Information technologies, advocacy, and development: resistance and backlash to industrial shrimp farming. Cartography and Geographic Information Systems25, 113—22.
112.
Stonich, S.C.2002: Information technologies, PPGIS, and advocacy: globalization of resistance to industrial shrimp farming. In C raig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems, London: Taylor and Francis, 259—69.
113.
Talen, E.2000: Bottom-up GIS — a new tool for individual and group expression in participatory planning. Journal of the American Planning Association66, 279—94.
114.
Tang, K.X. and Waters, N.M.2005: The internet, GIS and public participation in transportation planning. Progress in Planning64, 7—62.
115.
Taylor, P.J.1990: GKS. Political Geography Quarterly9, 211—12.
116.
Taylor, P.J. and Overton, M.1991: Further thoughts on geography and GIS. Environment and Planning A 23, 1087—94.
117.
Tulloch, D.L.2002: Environmental NGOs and community access to technology as a force for change. In Craig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems, London: Taylor and Francis , 192—204.
118.
— 2003: What PPGIS really needs is… 2nd Annual Public Participation GIS Conference, Portland State University , Portland, Oregon, 20—22 July. Retrieved 26 June 2007 from http://deathstar.rutgers.edu/ppgis/Tulloch.PPGIS.2003.htm
119.
Tulloch, D.L. and Epstein, E.2002: Benefits of community MPLIS: efficiency, effectiveness, and equity. Transactions in GIS6, 195—211.
120.
Tulloch, D.L. and Shapiro, T.2003: The intersection of data access and public participation: impacting GIS users' success? Journal of the Urban and Regional Information Systems Association15(2), 55—60.
121.
Ventura, S.J., Niemann, B.J., Sutphin, T. and Chenoweth, R.E.2002: GIS-enhanced land-use planning. In Craig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems, London: Taylor and Francis, 113—24.
122.
Walker, D.H., Leitch, A.M., de Lai, R., Cottrell, A., Johnson, A.K.L. and Pullar, D.2002: A community-based and collaborative GIS$space$joint venture in rural Australia. In Craig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems, London: Taylor and Francis , 137—52.
123.
Warf, B.2001: Sequeways into cyberspace: multiple geographies of the digital divide. Environment and Planning B 28, 3—19.
124.
Warren, D.M.1991: Using indigenous knowledge in agricultural development . World Bank Discussion Paper 127. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
125.
Weiner, D. and Harris, T.M.2003: Community-integrated GIS for land reform in South Africa , Journal of the Urban and Regional Information Systems Association15(2), 61—73.
126.
Weiner, D., Harris, T.M. and Craig, W.J.2002: Community participation and geographic information systems . In Craig, W.J., Harris, T.M. and Weiner, D., editors, Community participation and Geographic Information Systems , London: Taylor and Francis, 3—16.
127.
Weiner, D., Warner, T., Harris, T.M. and Levin, R.M.1995: Apartheid representations in a digital landscape: GIS, remote sensing, and local knowledge in Kiepersol, South Africa. Cartography and Geographic Information Systems22, 30—44.
128.
Williams, C. and Dunn, C.E.2003: GIS in participatory research: assessing the impact of landmines on communities in North-west Cambodia. Transactions in GIS7, 393—410.
129.
Wong, S. and Chua, Y.L.2001 (published 2004): Data intermediation and beyond: issues for web-based PPGIS. Cartographica38(3/4), 63—80.
130.
Wood, J.2005: `How green is my valley?' Desktop geographic information systems as a community-based participatory mapping tool. Area37, 159—70.
