Drawing upon a recent study on the association between low self-control and differential responses from the criminal justice system, this study examined whether academic performance, a construct linked to self-control, was also associated with the probability of police arrest. The result indicated that academic performance did have a statistically significant inverse association with the likelihood of police arrest, net of low self-control and delinquency.
AiC.NortonE. (2003). Interaction terms in logit and probit models. Economics Letters, 80, 123-129.
2.
BarkleyR. (1997). ADHD and the nature of self-control. New York: Guilford.
3.
BeaverK.DeLisiM.MearsD.StewartE. (2009). Low self-control and contact with the criminal justice system in a nationally representative sample of males. Justice Quarterly, 26, 695-715.
4.
BeaverK.WrightJ.DeLisiM. (2007). Self-control as an executive function: Reformulating Gottfredson and Hirschi’s parental socialization thesis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 1345-1361.
5.
BeaverK.WrightJ.DeLisiM. (2008). Delinquent peer group formation: Evidence of a gene x environment correlation. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 169, 227-244.
6.
BeaverK.WrightJ.DeLisiM.VaughnM. (2008). Genetic influences on the stability of low self-control: Results from a longitudinal sample of twins. Journal of Criminal Justice, 36, 478-485.
7.
BiedermanJ.MonuteauxM.DoyleA.SeidmanL.WilensT.FerreroF.FaraoneS. V. (2004). Impact of executive function deficits and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on academic outcomes in children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 757-766.
8.
BlackD. (1976). The behavior of law. New York, NY: Academic Press.
9.
BoutwellB.BeaverK. (2010). The intergenerational transmission of low self-control. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 47, 174-209.
CarrollJ.WeaverF. (1986). Shoplifters’ perceptions of crime opportunities: A process-tracing study. In CornishD.ClarkR. (Eds.), The reasoning criminal: Rational choice perspectives on offending (pp. 19-38). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
12.
Chesney-LindM. (1973). Judicial enforcement of the female sex role: The family court and the female delinquent. Issues in Criminology, 82, 51-69.
13.
ChristoffK.PrabhakaranV.DorfmanJ.ZhaoZ.KrogerJ.HolyoakK.GabrieliJ. (2001). Rostrolateral prefrontal cortex involvement in relational integration during reasoning. NeuroImage, 14, 1136-1149.
14.
ClarkeR.CornishD. (1985). Modeling offenders’ decisions: A framework for research and policy. Crime and Justice, 6, 147-185.
15.
CookM.YoungA.TaylorD.BedfordA. (1998). Personality correlates of alcohol consumption. Personality and Individual Differences, 4, 641-647.
16.
CullenF.GendreauP.JarjouraG.WrightJ. (1997). Crime and the bell curve: Lessons from intelligent criminology. Crime & Delinquency, 43, 387-411.
17.
DamasioA. (1994). Descartes’ error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York, NY: G. P. Putnam.
DeLisiM.HochstetlerA.MurphyD. (2003). Self-control behind bars: A validation study of the Grasmick et al. scale. Justice Quarterly, 20, 241-263.
20.
De PisapiaN.SlomskiJ.BraverT. (2007). Functional specializations in lateral prefrontal cortex associated with the integration and segregation of information in working memory. Cerebral Cortex, 17, 993-1006.
21.
DuckworthA.SeligmanM. (2005). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychological Science, 16, 939-944.
22.
DuckworthA.SeligmanM. (2006). Self-discipline gives girls the edge: Gender in self-discipline, grades, and achievement test scores. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 198-208.
23.
DugdaleR. (1877). “The Jukes”: A study in crime, pauperism, disease, and heredity: Also further studies of criminals. New York, NY: G.P. Putnam.
FaganJ.DaviesG. (2000). Street stops and broken windows: Terry, race, and disorder in New York City. Fordham Urban Law Journal, 28, 457-504.
26.
FeldmanM. (1977). Criminal behavior: A psychological analysis. New York, NY: John Wiley.
27.
FinkA.McCownW. (1993). Impulsivity in children and adolescents: Measurement, causes and treatment. In McCownW.ShureM.JohnsonJ. (Eds.), The impulsive client, theory, research and treatment (pp. 279-308). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
28.
FreyM.DettermanD. (2004). Scholastic assessment or g? The relationship between the Scholastic Assessment Test and general cognitive ability. Psychological Science, 15, 373-378.
29.
GarnerJ. K. (2009). Conceptualizing the relations between executive functions and self-regulated learning. Journal of Psychology, 143, 405-426.
30.
GoddardH. (1914). Feeble-mindedness: Its causes and consequences. New York, NY: Macmillan.
31.
GoldbergE. (2001). The executive brain: Frontal lobes and the civilized mind. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
32.
GoldsteinJ. (1959). Police discretion not to invoke the criminal process; low-visibility decisions in the administration of justice. Yale Law Journal, 69, 543-592.
33.
GottfredsonM.HirschiT. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
34.
GrasmickH.TittleC.BursikR.ArneklevB. (1993). Testing the core empirical implications of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 30, 5-29.
35.
HakimS.RengertG.ShachmuroveY. (2001). Target search of burglars: A revised economic model. Papers in Regional Science, 80, 121-137.
HerrnsteinR.MurrayC. (1994). The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life. New York, NY: Free Press.
38.
HindelangM.HirschiT.WeisJ. (1981). Measuring delinquency. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
39.
HirschiT.HindelangM. J. (1977). Intelligence and delinquency: A revisionist review. American Sociological Review, 42, 571-587.
40.
IshikawaS.RaineA. (2003). Prefrontal deficits and antisocial behavior: A causal model. In LaheyB.MoffittT.CaspiA. (Eds.), Causes of conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency (pp. 277-304). New York, NY: Guilford.
41.
KatzJ. (1988). Seductions of crime: Moral and sensual attractions in doing evil. New York, NY: Basic Books.
42.
KlingerD. A. (1994). Demeanor or crime? Why “hostile” citizens are more likely to be arrested. Criminology, 32, 475-493.
43.
KoechlinE.HyafilA. (2007). Anterior prefrontal function and the limits of human decision-making. Science, 318, 594-598.
44.
LeiberM.MackK. (2003). The individual and joint effects of race, gender, and family status on juvenile justice decision-making. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 40, 34-70.
45.
LongS.FreeseJ. (2005). Regression models for categorical outcomes using Stata. College Station, TX: Stata Press.
46.
LongshoreD. (1998). Self-control and criminal opportunity: A prospective test of the general theory of crime. Social Problems, 45, 102-113.
47.
LundmanR. (1998). City police and drunk driving: Baseline data. Justice Quarterly, 15, 527-546.
48.
LuriaA. (1961). The role of speech in the regulation of normal and abnormal behavior. New York, NY: Basic Books.
49.
LynamD.MoffittT.Stouthamer-LoeberM. (1993). Explaining the relation between IQ and delinquency: Class, race, test motivation, school failure, or self-control?Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 187-196.
50.
MastrofskiS.ReisigM.McCluskeyJ. (2002). Police disrespect toward the public: An encounter-based analysis. Criminology, 40, 519-552.
51.
MatsuedaR.KreagerD.HuizingaD. (2006). Deterring delinquents: A rational choice model of theft and violence. American Sociological Review, 71, 95-122.
52.
McGloinJ.PrattT. (2003). Cognitive ability and delinquent behavior among inner-city youth: A life-course analysis of main, mediating, and interaction effects. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47, 253-271.
53.
McKenzieK.SchweitzerR. (2001). Who succeeds at university? Factors predicting academic performance in first year Australian university students. Higher Education Research & Development, 20, 21-33.
54.
MichaelS.HullR.ZahmD. (2001). Environmental factors influencing auto burglary: A case study. Environment & Behavior, 33, 368-388.
55.
MoffittT. (1990). The neuropsychology of juvenile delinquency: A critical review. In TonryM.MorrisN. (Eds.), Crime and justice: An annual review of research (Vol. 12, pp. 99-169). Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
56.
MoffittT. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674-701.
57.
MoffittT.CaspiA.SilvaP.Stouthamer-LoeberM. (1995). Individual differences in personality and intelligence are linked to crime: Cross-context evidence from nations, neighborhoods, genders, races, and age-cohorts. In HaganJ. (Ed.), Current perspectives on aging and the life cycle: Delinquency and disrepute in the life course (Vol. 4, pp. 1-34). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
58.
MoffittT.SilvaP. (1988). IQ and delinquency: A direct test of the differential detection hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 330-333.
59.
MurchisonC. (1926). Criminal intelligence. Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.
60.
MurphyB.EisenbergN. (1997). Young children’s emotionality, regulation and social functioning and their responses when they are a target of a peer’s anger. Social Development, 6, 18-36.
61.
NeisserU.BoodooG.BouchardT.BoykinA.BrodyN.CeciS.HalpernD.ZellerK. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51, 77-101.
62.
NisbettR.AronsonJ.BlairC.DickensW.FlynnJ.HalpernD.TurkheimerE. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67, 130-159.
63.
NoftleE.RobinsR. (2007). Personality predictors of academic outcomes: Big Five correlates of GPA and SAT scores. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 116-130.
64.
PaternosterR.BrameR.MazerolleP.PiqueroA. (1998). Using the correct statistical test for the equality of regression coefficients. Criminology, 36, 859-866.
65.
PiliavinI.BriarS. (1964). Police encounters with juveniles. American Journal of Sociology, 70, 206-214.
66.
PintrichP. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In BoekaertsM.PintrichP.ZeidnerM. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (Vol. 451, pp. 451-502). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
67.
PrattT.CullenF. (2000). The empirical status of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime: A meta-analysis. Criminology, 38, 931-964.
68.
PresdeeM. (2005). Burning issues: Fire, carnival and crime. In SoothillK.PeeloM. (Eds.), Questioning crime and criminology (pp. 69-82). London, England: Willan Publishing.
69.
ReynoldsJ.McDermottK.BraverT. (2006). A direct comparison of anterior prefrontal cortex involvement in episodic retrieval and integration. Cerebral Cortex, 16, 519-528.
70.
RomalJ.KaplanB. (1995). Difference in self-control among spenders and savers. Psychology: A Quarterly Journal of Human Behavior, 32, 8-17.
71.
SanbornJ.SalernoA. (2005). The juvenile justice system: Law and process. Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury.
72.
ShamoshN.DeyoungC.GreenA.ReisD.JohnsonM.ConwayA.GrayJ. R. (2008). Individual differences in delay discounting: Relation to intelligence, working memory, and anterior prefrontal cortex. Psychological Science, 19, 904-912.
73.
ShamoshN.GrayJ. (2008). Delay discounting and intelligence: A meta-analysis. Intelligence, 36, 289-305.
74.
ShodaY.MischelW.PeakeP. K. (1990). Predicting adolescent cognitive and self-regulatory competencies from preschool delay of gratification: Identifying diagnostic conditions. Developmental Psychology, 26, 978-986.
75.
ShortJ.NyeF. (1957). Reported behavior As a criterion of deviant behavior. Social Problems, 5, 207-213.
76.
SkoganW. (1994). Contacts between police and public: Findings from the 1992 British Crime Survey. London, England: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.
77.
SpinellaM.MileyW. (2003). Impulsivity and academic achievement in college students. College Student Journal, 37, 545-549.
78.
StarkR. (1975). Social problems. New York, NY: Random House.
79.
SutherlandE. (1931). Mental deficiency and crime. In YoungK. (Ed.), Social attitudes (pp. 357-375). New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
80.
TangneyJ.BaumeisterR.BooneA. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72, 271-324.
81.
TaylorT.TurnerK.EsbensenF.WinfreeL. (2001). “Coppin” an attitude: Attitudinal differences among juvenile toward police. Journal of Criminal Justice, 29, 295-305.
82.
TerrillW.ReisigM. (2003). Neighborhood context and police use of force. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 40, 291-321.
83.
ThornberryT.KrohnM. (2000). The self-report method for measuring delinquency and crime. In DuffeeD. (Ed.), Measurement and analysis of crime and justice (pp. 33-83). Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.
84.
TurnerM. G.HartmanJ. L.BishopD. M. (2007). The effects of prenatal problems, family functioning, and neighborhood disadvantage in predicting life-course-persistent offending. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 1241-1261.
85.
UdryJ. R. (2003). The national longitudinal study of adolescent health (add health), waves I and II, 1994–1996; wave III, 2001-2002 (Machine-readable data file and docu-mentation). Chapel Hill: Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina.
86.
Van MaanenJ. (1974). Working the street: A developmental view of police behavior. In JacobH. (Ed.), The potential for reform of criminal justice (pp. 83-130). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
87.
WarnerB.CoomerB. (2003). Neighborhood drug arrest rates: Are they a meaningful indicator Of drug activity? A research note. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 40, 123-138.
88.
WerthmanC.PiliavinI. (1967). Gang members and the police. In BorduaD. (Ed.), The police: six sociological essays (pp. 56-98). New York, NY: John Wiley.
89.
WhiteH. (1980). A heteroskedasticity-consistent covariance matrix estimator and a direct test for heteroskedasticity. Econometrica, 48, 817-838.
90.
WordenR. (1989). Situational and attitudinal explanations of police behavior: A theoretical reappraisal and empirical assessment. Law Society Review, 23, 667-711.
91.
WordenR.ShepardR. (1996). Demeanor, crime, and police behavior: A reexamination of the police services study data. Criminology, 34, 83-105.
92.
YunI.LeeJ. (2012). IQ and delinquency: The differential detection hypothesis revisited. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. Advance online publication.
