In this paper I examine claims of racial difference in bone density and find that the use and definitions of race in medicine lack a theoretical foundation. My central argument is that the social produces the biological in a system of constant feedback between body and social experience. By providing a different angle of vision on claimed racial differences I hope to move the conversation away from an ultimately futile discussion of nature versus nurture, where time is held constant and place seen as irrelevant, and begin to build a new paradigm for examining the contributions of geographic ancestry, individual lifecycle experience, race, and gender to varied patterns of health and disease.
Ahn, Andrew C., Muneesh Tewari, Chi-Sang Poon & Russel S. Phillips (2006a) `The Limits of Reductionism in Medicine: Could Systems Biology Offer an Alternative?'Public Library of Science Medicine3(6): e208 doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030208.
2.
Ahn, Andrew C., Muneesh Tewari, Chi-Sang Poon & Russell S. Phillips (2006b) `The Clinical Applications of a Systems Approach', Public Library of Science in Medicine3(7): e209 doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030209.
3.
Alekel, Noreen, D. Lee, Charles T. Peterson, Roy K. Werner, Erica Mortillaro, N. Ahmed & Suhash C. Kukreja (2002) `Frame Size, Ethnicity, Lifestyle, and Biologic Contributors to Areal and Volumetric Lumbar Spine Bone Mineral Density in Indian/Pakistani and American Caucasian Premenopausal Women', Journal of Clinical Densitometry5(2): 175-86.
4.
Allgrove, J. (2004) `Is Nutritional Rickets Returning?', Archives of Diseases in Childhood89(8): 699-701.
5.
American Anthropological Association (1996 ) `Statement on "Race"', American Anthropological Association. Available at <www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm> ; (accessed 28 January 2008).
6.
Bateson, P., D. Barker, T. Clutton-Brock, D. Deb, B. D'Udine, R.A. Foley, et al. (2004) `Developmental Plasticity and Human Health' , Nature430(6998): 419-21.
7.
Bell, N.H., L. Gordon, J. Stevens & J.R. Shary (1995) `Demonstration that Bone Mineral Density of the Lumbar Spine, Trochanter, and Femoral Neck is Higher in Black than in White Young Men', Calcified Tissue International56: 11-13.
8.
Bell, N.H., Nigel A. Morrison, Tuan V. Nguyen, John Eisman & Bruce W. Hollis (2001) `ApaI polymorphisms of the Vitamin D Receptor Predict Bone Density of the Lumbar Spine and not Racial Difference in Bone Density in Young Men', Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine137(2): 133-40.
9.
Bertoni, B., B. Budowle, M. Sans, S.A. Barton & R. Chakraborty (2003) `Admixture in Hispanics: Distribution of Ancestral Population Contributions in the Continental United States', Human Biology75(1): 1-11.
10.
Bischoff-Ferrari, Heike A. , Thomas Dietrich, E. John Orav & Bess Dawson-Hughes (2004) `Positive Association Between 25-Hydroxy Vitamin D Levels and Bone Mineral Density: A Population-based Study of Younger and Older Adults', American Journal of Medicine116(9): 634-39.
11.
Bischoff-Ferrari, H.A., W.C. Willett, J.B. Wong, E. Giovannucci, T. Dietrich & B. Dawson-Hughes (2005) `Fracture Prevention With Vitamin D Supplementation: a Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials' , Journal of the American Medical Association293(18): 2257-64.
12.
Bouwmeester, T., A. Bauch, H. Ruffner, P.-O. Angrand, G. Bergamini, K. Croughton, et al. (2004) `A Physical and Functional Map of the Human TNF-alpha/NF-kappa B Signal Transduction Pathway', Nature Cell Biology6(2): 97-105.
13.
Braun, L. (2002). `Race, Ethnicity, and Health: Can Genetics Explain Disparities?'Perspectives in Biology and Medicine45(2): 159-74.
14.
Braun, Lundy (2005) `Spirometry, Measurement, and Race in the 19th Century', Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences60(2): 135-69.
15.
Braun, Lundy (2006) `Reifying Human Difference: the Debate on Genetics, Race and Health', International Journal of Health Services36(3): 557-73.
16.
Broussard, Danielle L. & Jeanette H. Magnus (2004) `Risk Assessment and Screening for Low Bone Mineral Density in a Multi-ethnic Population of Women and Men: Does One Approach Fit All?', Osteoporsis International15(5): 349-60.
17.
Campbell, James R., Randy N. Rosier, Leonore Novotny & J. Edward Puzas (2004) `The Association Between Environmental Lead Exposure and Bone Density in Children', Environmental Health Perspective112(11): 1200-03.
18.
Cauley, Jane A., Li-Yung Lui, Kristine E. Ensrud, Joseph M. Zmuda, Katie L. Stone, Marc C. Hochberg, et al. (2005) `Bone Mineral Density and the Risk of Incident Nonspinal Fractures in Black and White Women', Journal of the American Medical Association293(17): 2102-28.
19.
Cauley, Jane A., Li-Yung Lui, Katie L. Stone, Teresa A. Hillier, Joseph M. Zmuda, Marc Hochberg, et al. (2005) `Longitudinal Study of Changes in Hip Bone Mineral Density in Caucasian and African-American Women', Journal of the American Geriatric Society53(2): 183-89.
20.
Chang, S.F. (2004) `Explore the Effectors of Bone Mineral Density in Community Women', Journal of Nursing Research12(4): 327-36.
21.
Chen, Yu-ming, Suzanne C. Ho, Silvia S.H. Lam, Susan S.S. Ho & Jean L. Woo (2003) `Soy Isoflavones have a Favorable Effect on Bone Loss in Chinese Postmenopausal Women with Lower Bone Mass: a Double-blind, Randomized, Controlled Trial', Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism88(10): 4740-47.
22.
Chesnut, Charles H., Mark P. Ettinger, Paul D. Miller, David J. Baylink, Ronald Emkey, Steven T. Harris, et al. (2005) `Ibandronate Produces Significant, Similar Antifracture Efficacy in North American and European Women: New Clinical Findings from BONE', Current Medical Research and Opinion21(3): 391-401.
23.
Choi, Sung C. & Mildred Trotter (1970) `A Statistical Study of the Multivariate Structure and Race-Sex Differences of American White and Negro Fetal Skeletons', American Journal of Physical Anthropology33(1): 307-12.
24.
Chung, Hye Won, Jeong-Sun Seo, Sung Eun Hur, Hyung Lae Kim, Jun Yeon Kim, Ji Hyun Jung, et al. (2003) Association of Interleukin-6 Promoter Variant with Bone Mineral Density in Pre-menopausal Women', Journal of Human Genetics48(5): 243-48.
25.
Conlan, R. & E. Sherman (2000) `Unraveling the Enigma of Vitamin D' ( Washington, DC, National Academy of Sciences): 1-8. Available at <www.beyonddiscovery.org/includes/DBFile.asp?ID=91> (accessed 31 January 2007)
26.
Cooper, R.S. & V.L. Freeman (1999) `Limitations in the Use of Race in the Study of Disease Causation', Journal of the National Medical Association91(7): 379-83.
27.
Cooper, R.S., J.S. Kaufman & R. Ward (2003) `Race and Genomics', New England Journal of Medicine348(12): 1166-70.
28.
Cooper, C., K. Javaid, S. Westlake, N. Harvey & E. Dennison (2005) `Developmental Origins of Osteoporotic Fracture: the Role of Maternal Vitamin D Insufficiency', Journal of Nutrition135(11): 2728S-34S.
29.
Cummings, Steven R., Jane Cauley, L. Palermo, P.D. Ross, R.D. Wasnich, Dennis Black, et al. (1994) `Racial Differences in Hip Axis Lengths Might Explain Racial Differences in Rates of Hip Fracture', Osteoporosis International4: 226-29.
30.
Cusack, S. & K.D. Cashman (2003) `Impact of Genetic Variation on Metabolic Response of Bone to Diet', Proceedings of the Nutrition Society62(4): 901-12.
31.
Daniels, Elvis D., John M. Pettifor, Christine M. Schnitzler, Sheila Russell, W. & Deepak N. Patel (1995) `Ethnic Differences in Bone Density in Female South African Nurses', Journal of Bone and Mineral Research10(3): 359-67.
32.
Dawson-Hughes, Bess (2004) `Racial/Ethnic Considerations in Making Recommendations for Vitamin D for Adult and Elderly Men and Women', American Journal of Clinical Nutrition80(6 Suppl): 1763S-66S.
33.
Dawson-Hughes, Bess, Susan Harris, Susan Finneran & Helen M. Rasmussen (1995) `Calcium Absorption Responses to Calcitriol in Black and White Premenopausal Women', Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism80(10): 3068-72.
34.
Dawson-Hughes, Bess, Susan Harris, Carolyn Kramich, Gerard Dallal & Helen M. Rasmussen (1993) `Calcium Retention and Hormone Levels in Black and White Women on High-and Low-calcium Diets' , Journal of Bone and Mineral Research8(7): 779-87.
35.
DeBaun, M.R., E.L. Niemitz & A.P. Feinberg (2003) `Association of in vitro Fertilization with Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome and Epigenetic Alterations of LIT1 and H19', American Journal of Human Genetics72(1): 156-60.
36.
Duster, Troy (2006) `Comparative Perspectives and Competing Explanations: Taking on the Newly Configured Reductionist Challenge to Sociology', American Sociological Review71: 1-15.
37.
Eltis, David, Stephen D. Behrendt, David Richardson & Herbert S. Klein (1999) The TransAtlantic Slave Trade: A Database on CD-ROM (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
38.
Epstein, Steven (2007) Inclusion: the Politics of Difference in Medical Research (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press).
39.
Fausto-Sterling, Anne (2003) `The Problem with Sex/Gender and Nature/Nurture' , in S. J. Williams, Lynda Birke & Gillian A Bendelow (eds), Debating Biology ( London: Routledge): 123-32.
40.
Fausto-Sterling, Anne (2004) `Refashioning Race: DNA and the Politics of Health Care', Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies15(3): 1-37.
41.
Fausto-Sterling, Anne. (2005) `The Bare Bones of Sex Part I: Sex and Gender' , Signs30(2): 1491-1527.
42.
Fernandez, Jose R., M.D. Shriver, T.M. Beasley, N. Rafla-Demetrious, E. Parra, J. Albu, et al. (2003) `Association of African Genetic Admixture with Resting Metabolic Rate and Obesity Among Women', Obesity Research11(7): 904-11.
43.
Fleet, J.C. (2004) `Genomic and Proteomic Approaches for Probing the Role of Vitamin D in Health', American Journal of Clinical Nutrition80(6 Suppl): 1730S-34S.
44.
Fraga, M.F., E. Ballestar, M.F. Paz, S. Ropero, F. Setien, M.L. Ballestar, et al. (2005) `Epigenetic Differences Arise During the Lifetime of Monozygotic Twins', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA102(30): 10604-09.
45.
Fraser, D.R. (2004) `Vitamin D-deficiency in Asia', Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology89-90(1-5): 491-95.
46.
Frost, Harold M. (1996) `Perspectives: A Proposed General Model of the "Mechanostat" (Suggestions from a New Skeletal-Biologic Paradigm)', Anatomical Record244(2): 139-47.
47.
Frost, Harold M. (2000) `The Utah Paradigm of Skeletal Physiology: An Overview of its Insights for Bone, Cartilage and Collagenous Tissue Organs', Journal of Bone and Mineral Metabolism, 18(6): 305-16.
48.
Frost, Harold M. (2001a) `From Wolff's Law to the Utah Paradigm: Insights About Bone Physiology and its Clinical Applications', Anatomical Record262(4): 398-419.
49.
Frost, Harold M. (2001b) `Cybernetic Aspects of Bone Modeling and Remodeling, with Special Reference to Osteoporosis and Whole-bone Strength', American Journal of Human Biology13(2): 235-48.
50.
Fu, L., M.S. Patel, A. Bradley, E.F. Wagner & G. Karsenty, et al. (2005) `The Molecular Clock Mediates Leptin-regulated Bone Formation', Cell122(5): 803-15.
51.
Furuta, I., N. Kobayashi, T. Fujino, Y. Kobamatsu, T. Shirogane, M. Yaegashi, et al. (2004) `Bone Mineral Density of the Lumbar Spine is Associated with TNF Gene Polymorphisms in Early Postmenopausal Japanese Women', Calcified Tissue International74(6): 509-15.
52.
Gartner, L.M. & F.R. Greer (2003) `Prevention of Rickets and Vitamin D Deficiency: New Guidelines for Vitamin D Intake', Pediatrics111(4 Pt 1): 908-10.
53.
Gasch, A.P., P.T. Spellman, C.M. Lao, P. Carmel-Harel, M.B. Eisen, G. Storz, et al. (2000) `Genomic Expression Programs in the Response of Yeast Cells to Environmental Changes', Molecular Biology of the Cell11(12): 4241-57.
54.
Goodman, A. & E. Hammonds (2000) `Reconciling Race and Human Adaptability: Carleton Coon and the Persistence of Race in Scientific Discourse', Kroeber Anthropological Society Papers84: 28-44.
55.
Gould, Stephen J. (1981) The Mismeasure of Man (New York : W.W. Norton and Company).
56.
Goulding, Ailsa, Jennifer E. Rockell, Ruth E. Black, Andrea M. Grant, Ianthe E. Jones & Sheila M. Williams (2004) `Children Who Avoid Drinking Cow's Milk are at Increased Risk for Prepubertal Bone Fractures', Journal of the American Dietary Association104(2): 250-53.
57.
Greendale, Gail A., Mei-Hua Huang, Yan Wang, Joel S. Finkelstein, Michelle E. Danielson & Barbara Sternfeld (2003) `Sport and Home Physical Activity are Independently Associated with Bone Density', Medical Science and Sports Exercise35(3): 506-12.
58.
Hacking, Ian (2005) `Why Race Still Matters', Daedalus134(1) (Winter): 102-16.
59.
Hardy, A. (1992) `Rickets and the Rest: Child-care, Diet and the Infectious Children's Diseases, 1850-1914', Social History of Medicine5(3): 389-412.
60.
Harris, Susan S., T. RossEccleshall, Coleman Gross, Bess Dawson-Hughes & David Feldman (1997) `The Vitamin D Receptor Start Codon Polymorphism (FOKI) and Bone Mineral Density in Premenopausal American Black and White Women', Journal of Bone and Mineral Research12(7): 1043-48.
61.
Harris, S.S., E. Soteriades & B. Dawson-Hughes (2001) `Secondary Hyperparathyroidism and Bone Turnover in Elderly Blacks and Whites', Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism86(8): 3801-04.
62.
Hatun, S., Ö. Islam, F. Cizmecioglu, B. Kara, K. Babaoglu, F. Berk, et al. (2005) `Subclinical Vitamin D Deficiency is Increased in Adolescent Girls who Wear Concealing Clothing', Journal of Nutrition 135(2): 218-22.
63.
Hendricks, M.K. & J.L. Fiedler (2001) `Food Fortification - a Feasible, Cost-effective Option in the Fight Against Vitamin A Deficiency in South Africa', South African Medical Journal91(9): 753-55.
64.
Herman, A.A. (1996) `Toward a Conceptualization of Race in Epidemiologic Research', Ethnicity & Disease6: 7-20.
65.
Ho, Suzanne C., Yu-ming Chen & Jean L. Woo (2005) `Educational Level and Osteoporosis Risk in Postmenopausal Chinese Women', American Journal of Epidemiology161(7): 680-90.
66.
Holden, C. (2003) `Race and Medicine', Science302: 594-96.
67.
Holick, M.F. (2003) `Vitamin D: A Millenium Perspective', Journal of Cellular Biochemistry88: 296-307.
68.
Huachou, Zhang, Akira Kitazawa, Kazuhiro Kushida & Akira Nagano (2001) `Longitudinal Study of Age- and Menopause-related Metacarpal Index Changes in Japanese Adult Females', Journal of Clinical Densitometry4(1): 43-49.
69.
Hui, Sui L., Linda A.Dimeglio, ChristopherLongcope, MunroPeacock, RonaldMcClintock, Anthony Perkins, et al. (2003) `Difference in Bone Mass Between Black and White American Children: Attributable to Body Build, Sex Hormone Levels, or Bone Turnover?', Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism88(2): 642-49.
70.
Jackson, F.L.C. (1997) `Concerns and Priorities in Genetic Studies: Insights from Recent African American Biohistory', Seton Hall Law Review27: 951-70.
71.
Jackson, Fatimah L.C. (2003) `Ethnogenetic Layering: A Novel Approach to Determining Environmental Health Risks Among Children from Three US Regions', Journal of Children's Health1(3): 369-86.
72.
Jackson, Fatimah L.C. (2004) `Human Genetic Variation and Health: New Assessment Approaches Based on Ethnogenetic Layering', British Medical Bulletin69: 215-35.
73.
Jee, W.S. (2000) `Principles in Bone Physiology', Journal of Musculoskeletal and Neuronal Interactions1(1): 11-13.
74.
Kahn, Jonathan (2003) `Getting the Numbers Right: Statistical Mischief and Racial Profiling in Heart Failure Research', Perspectives in Biology and Medicine46(4): 473-83.
75.
Kahn, Jonathan (2006) `Race, Pharmacogenomics, and Marketing: Putting BiDil in Context', American Journal of Bioethics, 6:5, W1-W5.
76.
Kaplan, J.B. & T. Bennett (2003) `Use of Race and Ethnicity in Biomedical Publication' , Journal of the American Medical Association289(20): 2709-716.
77.
Karasik, D., L.A. Cupples, M.T. Hannan & D.P. Kiel (2003) `Age, Gender, and Body Mass Effects on Quantitative Trait Loci for Bone Mineral Density: The Framingham Study', Bone33(3): 308-16.
78.
Kellie, Shirley E. & Jacob A. Brody (1990) `Sex-specific and Race-specific Hip Fracture Rates', American Journal of Public Health80(3): 326-28.
79.
Kittles, R.A. & K.M. Weiss (2003) `Race, Ancestry and Genes: Implications for Defining Disease Risk', Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics4: 33-67.
80.
Krieger, Nancy (2005) `If Race is the Answer, What is the Question? - On "Race", Racism, and Health: A Social Epidemiologist's Perspective', Web Forum: Is Race Real? Available at <http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Krieger/> ; (accessed 25 January 2007).
81.
Krieger, Nancy & Stephen Sidney (1996) `Racial Discrimination and Blood Pressure: The CARDIA Study of Young Black and White Adults', American Journal of Public Health86(10): 1370-78.
82.
Kuh, D. & Y. Ben-Shlomo (1997a) Introduction: A Life Course Approach to the Aetiology of Adult Chronic Disease', in D. Kuh & Y. Ben-Shlomo (eds), A Life Course Approach to Chronic Disease Epidemiology (Oxford & New York, Oxford University Press): xviii, 317.
83.
Kuh, Diana & Yoav Ben-Shlomo (eds) (1997b) A Life Course Approach to Chronic Disease Epidemiology (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
84.
Ladhani, S., L. Srinivasan, C. Buchanan & J. Allgrove (2004) `Presentation of Vitamin D Deficiency', Archives of Disease in Childhood89(8): 781-84.
85.
Laing, Emma M., Alissa R. Wilson, Christopher M. Modlesky, Patrick J. O'Connor, Daniel B. Hall & Richard D. Lewis (2005) `Initial Years of Recreational Artistic Gymnastics Training Improves Lumbar Spine Bone Mineral Accrual in 4- to 8-year-old Females', Journal of Bone Mineral Research20(3): 509-19.
86.
Lau, E.M., H. Lynn, J. Woo & L.J. Melton 3rd (2003) `Areal and Volumetric Bone Density in Hong Kong Chinese: A Comparison with Caucasians Living in the United States' , Osteoporosis International14(7): 583-88.
87.
Lee, Jennifer & Frank D. Bean (2003) `America's Changing Color Lines: Immigration, Race/Ethnicity and Multiracial Identification', Annual Review of Sociology30: 221-42.
88.
Lei, Shu-Feng, Fei-Yan Deng, Volodymyr Dvornyk, Man-Yuan Liu, Su-Mei Xiao, De-Ke Jiang, et al. (2005) `The (GT)n Polymorphism and Haplotype of the COL1A2 Gene, but not the (AAAG)n Polymorphism of the PTHR1 Gene, are Associated with Bone Mineral Density in Chinese', Human Genetics116(3): 200-07.
89.
Lei, S.F., Y.B. Wang, M.Y. Liu, X.Y. Mo & H.W. Deng (2005) `The VDR, COL1A1, PTH, and PTHR1 Gene Polymorphisms are not Associated with Bone Size and Height in Chinese Nuclear Families' , Journal of Bone Mineral Metabolism23(6): 501-05.
90.
Lequin, M.H., W.C. Hop, R.R. van Rijn, M.C. Bukkems, L.L. Verhaak, S.G. Robben, et al. (2001) `Comparison Between Quantitative Calcaneal and Tibial Ultrasound in a Dutch Caucasian Pediatric and Adolescent Population' , Journal of Clinical Densitometry4(2): 137-46.
91.
Lequin, M.H., R.R. van Rijn, S.G. Robben, W.J. van Leeuwen, W.C. Hop & C. van Kuijk (2001) `Quantitative Tibial Ultrasonometry Versus Radiographic Phalangeal Absorptiometry in a Caucasian Pediatric Population', Calcified Tissue International68(6): 323-29.
92.
Leung, Jenny Y., Andrew Y. Ho, T.P. Ip, Gavin Lee & Annie W. Kung (2005) `The Efficacy and Tolerability of Risedronate on Bone Mineral Density and Bone Turnover Markers in Osteoporotic Chinese Women: A Randomized Placebo-controlled Study', Bone36(2): 358-64.
93.
Lewis, R. (2002) `Race and the Clinic: Good Science? ' Scientist16(4): 15-18.
94.
Li, M., E.M. Lau & J. Woo (2004) `Methylenetetrahydrofolate Reductase Polymorphism (MTHFR C677T) and Bone Mineral Density in Chinese Men and Women', Bone35(6): 1369-74.
95.
Lin, R. & J.H. White (2004) `The Pleiotropic Actions of Vitamin D', BioEssays26(1): 21-28.
96.
Link, T.M., V. Vieth, R. Langenberg, N. Meier, A. Lotter, D. Newitt, et al. (2003) `Structure Analysis of High Resolution Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Proximal Femur: in vitro Correlation with Biomechanical Strength and BMD', Calcified Tissue International72(2): 156-65.
97.
Liu, P.Y., Y. Lu, J.R. Long, F.H. Xu, H. Shen, R.R. Recker, et al. (2004) `Common Variants at the PCOL2 and Sp1 Binding Sites of the COL1A1 Gene and their Interactive Effect Influence Bone Mineral Density in Caucasians', Journal of Medical Genetics41(10): 752-57.
98.
Long, J.-R., P.-Y. Liu, Y.-J. Liu, Y. Lu, L.-J. Zhao, et al. (2004) `APOE Haplotypes Influence Bone Mineral Density in Caucasian Males but not Females', Calcified Tissue International75(4): 299-304.
99.
Looker, Anne C. (2002) `The Skeleton, Race, and Ethnicity', Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism87(7): 3047-50.
100.
Lorentzon, Mattias, Ronny Lorentzon, Ulf H. Lerner & Peter Nordstrom (2001) `Calcium Sensing Receptor Gene Polymorphism, Circulating Calcium Concentrations and Bone Mineral Density in Healthy Adolescent Girls', European Journal of Endocrinology144(3): 257-61.
101.
Luckey, Marjorie M., Sylvan Wallenstein, Robert H. Lapinski & Diane E. Meier (1996) `A Prospective Study of Bone Loss in African-American and White Women - A Clinical Research Center Study', Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism81(8): 2948-56.
102.
Mackelvie, Kerry J., Heather A. McKay, Karim M. Khan & Peter R. Crocker (2001) `Lifestyle Risk Factors for Osteoporosis in Asian and Caucasian Girls', Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise (11): 1818-24.
103.
Matkovic, V., J.D. Landoll, N.E. Badenhop-Stevens, E.Y. Ha, Z. Crncevic-Orlic, B. Lin et al. (2004) `Nutrition Influences Skeletal Development from Childhood to Adulthood: A Study of Hip, Spine, and Forearm in Adolescent Females', Journal of Nutrition134(3): 701S-705S.
104.
McVeigh, J.A., S.A. Norris, N. Cameron & J.N. Pettifor (2004) `Associations Between Physical Activity and Bone Mass in Black and White South African Children at Age 9 yr', Journal of Applied Physiology97(3): 1006-12.
105.
Meddeb, N., H. Sahli, M. Chaded, J. Abdelmoula, M. Feki, H. Salah et al. (2005) `Vitamin D Deficiency in Tunisia', Osteoporosis International16(2): 180-83.
106.
Meier, Diane E., Marjorie M. Luckey, Sylvan Wallenstein, Robert H. Lapinski & Bayard Catherwood (1992) `Racial Differences in Pre- and Postmenopausal Bone Homeostasis: Association with Bone Density', Journal of Bone and Mineral Research7(10): 1181-89.
107.
Melton, L.J. 3rd (2001) `The Prevalence of Osteoporosis: Gender and Racial Comparison', Calcified Tissue International69(4): 179-81.
108.
Melton, L.J. 3rd, M.A. Marquez, S.J. Achenbach, A. Tefferi, M.K. O'Connor, W.M. O'Fallon et al. (2002) `Variations in Bone Density Among Persons of African Heritage', Osteoporosis International13(7): 551-59.
109.
Meyer, H.E.E., J.A. Falch, A.J. Søgaard, E. Haug ( 2004) `Vitamin D Deficiency and Secondary Hyperparathyroidism and the Association with Bone Mineral Density in Persons with Pakistani and Norwegian Background Living in Oslo, Norway, The Oslo Health Study', Bone35(2): 412-17.
110.
Mikhail, M.B., A.N. Vaswani & J.F. Aloia (1996) `Racial Differences in Femoral Dimensions and Their Relation to Hip Fracture', Osteoporosis International6: 22-24.
111.
Morton, Deborah J., Elizabeth Barrett-Connor, Donna Kritz-Silverstein, Deborah L. Wingard & Diane L. Schneider (2003) `Bone Mineral Density in Postmenopausal Caucasian, Filipina, and Hispanic Women', International Journal of Epidemiology32(1): 150-56.
112.
Mudano, A.S., L. Casebeer, F. Patino, J.J. Allison, N.W. Weissman, C.I. Kiefe et al. (2003) `Racial Disparities in Osteoporosis Prevention in a Managed Care Population', Southern Medical Journal96(5): 445-51.
113.
Nam, H.-S., M.-H. Shin, S.S. Kweon, K.-S. Park, S.J. Sohn, J.A. Rhee et al. (2005) `Association of Estrogen Receptor-alpha Gene Polymorphisms with Bone Mineral Density in Postmenopausal Korean Women' , Journal of Bone Mineral Metabolism23(1): 84-89.
114.
Namgung, R. & R.C. Tsang (2000) `Factors Affecting Newborn Bone Mineral Content: In Utero Effects on Newborn Bone Mineralization', Proceedings of the Nutrition Society59(1): 55-63.
115.
Nelson, D.A. & M.S. Megyesi (2004) `Sex and Ethnic Differences in Bone Architecture' , Current Osteoporosis Reports2(2): 65-69.
116.
Nelson, D.A., J.M. Pettifor, D.D. Barondess, D.D. Cody, K. Uusi-Rasi, T.J. Beck et al. (2004) `Comparison of Cross-sectional Geometry of the Proximal Femur in White and Black Women from Detroit and Johannesburg' , Journal of Bone and Mineral Research19(4): 560-65.
117.
Nelson, D.A., P.J. Vande Vord & P.H. Wooley (2000) `Polymorphism in the Vitamin D Receptor Gene and Bone Mass in African-American and White Mothers and Children: a Preliminary Report', Annals of Rheumatoid Disease59(8): 626-30.
118.
Nesby-O'Dell, S., K.S. Scanlon, M.E. Cogswell, C. Gillespie, B.W. Hollis, A.C. Looker, et al, (2002) `Hypovitaminosis D Prevalence and Determinants Among African American and White Women of Reproductive Age: Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994', American Journal of Clinical Nutrition76(1): 187-92.
119.
Nguyen, Nguyen D., Henrik G. Ahlborg & Tuan V. Nguyen (2004) `Does Hip Strength Measures Account for the Difference in Hip Fracture Incidence Between the Chinese and Caucasian Populations?', Bone35(4): 998-99; author reply: 1000.
120.
Opotowsky, Alexander R. & John P. Bilezikian (2003) `Racial Differences in the Effect of Early Milk Consumption on Peak and Postmenopausal Bone Mineral Density' , Journal of Bone and Mineral Research18(11): 1978-88.
121.
Ortiz, O., M. Russell, T.L. Daley, R.N. Baumgartner, M. Waki, S. Lichtman, et al. (1992) `Differences in Skeletal Muscle and Bone Mineral Mass Between Black and White Females and their Relevance to Estimates of Body Composition', American Journal of Clinical Nutrition55: 8-13.
122.
Ovesen, L., R. Andersen & J. Jokobsen (2003) `Geographical Differences in Vitamin D Status, with Particular Reference to European Countries', Proceedings of the Nutrition Society62(4): 813-21.
123.
Oyama, Susan (2000a) Evolution's Eye: A System's View of the Biology-Culture Divide (Durham, NC: Duke University Press).
124.
Oyama, Susan (2000b) The Ontogeny of Information: Developmental Systems and Evolution (Durham, NC: Duke University Press).
125.
Painter, Nell (2003) `Collective Degradation: Slavery and the Construction of Race', Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Gilder Lehrman Center International Conference at Yale University. Available at <www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Painter.pdf> (accessed 26 January 2007).
126.
Peacock, Munro, Daniel L. Koller, S. Hui, C.C. Johnston, T. Foroud, M.J. Econs (2004) `Peak Bone Mineral Density at the Hip is Linked to Chromosomes 14q and 15q', Osteoporosis International15(6): 489-96.
127.
Pembrey, M.E., L.O. Bygren, G. Kaati, S. Edvinsson, K. Northstone, M. Sjostrom, et al. (2006) `Sex-specific, Male-line Transgenerational Responses in Humans', European Journal of Human Genetics14(2): 159-66.
128.
Perry, H.M., M. Bernard, M. Horowitz, D.K. Miller, S. Flemin, M.Z. Baker, et al. (1998) `The Effect of Aging on Bone Mineral Metabolism and Bone Mass in Native American Women', Journal of the American Geriatrics Society46: 1418-22.
129.
Pollitzer, William S. & John J. Anderson (1989) `Ethnic and Genetic Differences in Bone Mass: A Review with a Hereditary vs. Environmental Perspective', American Journal of Clinical Nutrition50(6): 1244-59.
130.
Race Ethnicity and Genetics Working Group ( 2005) `The Use of Racial, Ethnic, and Ancestral Categories in Human Genetics Research', American Journal of Human Genetics77(4): 519-32.
131.
Raisz, L.G. (2005) `Pathogenesis of Osteoporosis: Concepts, Conflicts, and Prospects', Journal of Clinical Investigation115(12): 3318-25.
132.
Rajakumar, K. & S.B. Thomas (2005) `Reemerging Nutritional Rickets', Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine159(April): 335-41.
133.
Rauch, F. & E. Schoenau (2001) `The Developing Bone: Slave or Master of its Cells and Molecules?', Pediatric Research50(3): 309-14.
134.
Rice, Madeline Murguia, Eric B. Larson, Andrea Z. LaCroix & Barbara L. Drinkwater (2001) `Diagnosing Osteoporosis in Japanese American Women', American Journal of Medicine110(3): 241-42.
135.
Riggs, Lawrence B., Sundeep Khosla & L. Joseph Melton 3rd (2002) `Sex Steroids and the Construction and Conservation of the Adult Skeleton', Endocrine Reviews23(3): 279-302.
136.
Ringseis, R. & K. Eder (2005) `Effects of Dietary Fat and Oxidized Cholesterol on Gene Expression in Rat Liver as Assessed by cDNA Expression Array Analysis' , European Journal of Nutrition44(4): 231-41.
137.
Risch, N., E. Burchard, E. Ziv & H. Tang (2002) Categorization of Humans in Biomedical Research: Genes, Race and Disease', Genome Biology3(7): comment 2007.1-2007.12.
138.
Roberts, Sam (2005) `More Africans Enter U.S. than in Days of Slavery' , The New York Times (21 February): 1.
139.
Russett, Cynthia E. (1989) Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press).
140.
Sadatsafavi, M., A. Moayyeri, A. Soltani, B. Larijani, M. Nouraie & S. Akhondzadeh (2005) `Artificial Neural Networks in Prediction of Bone Density Among Postmenopausal Women', Journal of Endocrinological Investigation28(5): 425-31.
141.
Sanghavi, D. (2005) `Rickets Sheds Light on How Racial Disparities Happen', The Boston Globe (7 November): C1.
142.
Sankar, Pamela & Jonathan Kahn (2005) `BiDil: Race Medicine Or Race Marketing?', Health Affairs (Millwood) Web Exclusive . October 11: W456-63. Available at <http://content.healthaffairs.org.revproxy.brown.edu/cgi/reprint/hlthaff.w5.455v1?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&author1=Sankar&fulltext=BiDil&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT> ; (accessed 1 May 2008).
143.
Schoenau, Eckhard (2005) `From Mechanostat Theory to Development of the "Functional Muscle-Bone-Unit"', Journal of Musculoskeletal Neuronal Interactions5(3): 255-61.
144.
Seeman, Ego & P.D. Delmas (2006) `Bone Quality - The Material and Structural Basis of Bone Strength and Fragility', New England Journal of Medicine354(21): 2250-61.
145.
Shaw, N.J. & B.R. Pal (2002) `Vitamin D Deficiency in UK Asian Families: Activating a New Concern', Archives of Disease in Childhood86(3): 147-49.
146.
Shen, Q.Y. & S.S. Zheng (2004) `Identification of Genes Differentially Expressed in Monocyte-derived Dendritic Cells with 1alpha,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Using cDNA Arrays', Journal of Zhejiang University Science5(2): 222-25.
147.
Shields, Alexandra E., Michael Fortun, E.M. Hammonds, P.A. King, C. Lerman, R. Rapp et al. (2005) `The Use of Race Variables in Genetic Studies of Complex Traits and the Goal of Reducing Health Disparities: A Transdisciplinary Perspective', American Psychologist60(1): 77-103.
148.
Shim, Janet (2002) `Understanding the Routinised Inclusion of Race, Socioeconomic Status and Sex in Epidemiology: The Utility of Concepts from Technoscience Studies', Sociology of Health and Illness24(2): 129-50.
149.
Shim, Janet (2005) `Constructing "Race" Across the Science-Lay Divide: Racial Formation in the Epidemiology and Experience of Cardiovascular Disease' , Social Studies of Science35(3): 405-36.
150.
Shostak, Sara (2003) `Locating Gene-Environment Interactions: At the Intersections of Genetics and Public Health', Social Science and Medicine56: 2327-42.
151.
Sievanen, H. (2005) `Hormonal Influences on the Muscle-Bone Feedback System: A Perspective', Journal of Musculoskeletal and Neuronal Interactions5(3): 255-61.
152.
Singh, H., K.L. Medina & J.M. Pongubala (2005) `Contingent Gene Regulatory Networks and B Cell Fate Specification', Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA102(14): 4949-53.
153.
Skinner, D. (2006) `Racialized Futures: Biologism and the Changing Politics of Identity', Social Studies of Science36(3): 459-88.
154.
Skull, S.A., J.Y. Ngeow, B.A. Biggs, A. Street & P.R. Ebeling (2003) `Vitamin D Deficiency is Common and Unrecognized Among Recently Arrived Adult Immigrants from The Horn of Africa', International Medical Journal33(1-2): 47-51.
155.
Spach, K.M., L.B. Pedersen, F.E. Nashold, T. Kayo, B.S. Yandell, T.A. Prolla, et al. (2004) `Gene Expression Analysis Suggests that 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 Reverses Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis by Stimulating Inflammatory Cell Apoptosis', Physiological Genomics18(2): 141-51.
156.
Specker, B. (2004) `Nutrition Influences Bone Development From Infancy Through Toddler Years', Journal of Nutrition134(3): 691S-95S.
157.
Sumino, H., S. Ichikawa, M. Abe, Y. Endo, Y. Nakajima, T. Minegishi, et al. (2004) `Effects of Aging and Postmenopausal Hypoestrogenism on Skin Elasticity and Bone Mineral Density in Japanese Women', Endocrine Journal51(2): 159-64.
158.
Taaffe, D.R., T.F. Lang, T. Fuerst, J.A. Cauley, M.C. Nevitt & T.B. Harris (2003) `Sexand Race-related Differences in Cross-sectional Geometry and Bone Density of the Femoral Mid-shaft in Older Adults', Annals of Human Biology30(3): 329-46.
159.
Taaffe, D.R., E.M. Simonsick, M. Visser, S. Volpato, M.C. Nevitt, J.A. Cauley, et al. (2003) `Lower Extremity Physical Performance and Hip Bone Mineral Density in Elderly Black and White Men and Women: Cross-sectional Associations in the Health ABC Study', Journal of Gerontology Series A Biological and Medical Sciences58(10): M934-42.
160.
Taguchi, A., Y. Suei, M. Ohsuka, T. Nakamoto, K. Lee, M. Sanada, et al. (2005) `Relationship Between Self-reported Periodontal Status and Skeletal Bone Mineral Density in Japanese Postmenopausal Women' , Menopause12(2): 144-48.
161.
Takayanagi, H., K. Sato, A. Takaoka & T. Yaniguchi (2005) `Interplay Between Interferon and Other Cytokine Systems in Bone Metabolism', Immunological Reviews208: 181-93.
162.
Taylor, B.C., P.J. Schreiner, T.M. Doherty, M. Fornage, J.J. Carr & S. Sidney (2005) `Matrix Gla Protein and Osteopontin Genetic Associations with Coronary Artery Calcification and Bone Density: the CARDIA Study', Human Genetics116(6): 525-28.
163.
Thelen, E. (1988) `Dynamical Approaches to the Development of Behavior' , in J.A.S. Kelso, A.J. Mandell & M.F. Shlesinger (eds), Dynamic Patterns in Complex Systems. ( Singapore: World Scientific): 348-69.
164.
Thelen, Esther, Gregor Schöner, C. Scheier & L.B. Smith (2001) `The Dynamics of Embodiment: A Field Theory of Infant Perseverative Reaching', Behavioral and Brain Sciences24(1): 1-86.
165.
Trotter, M., G.E. Broman & R.R. Peterson (1960) `Densities of Bones of White and Negro Skeletons', Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery42-A(1): 50-58.
166.
Tsukamoto, Y., T. Watanabe, T. Nakagami & K. Morishita (2003) `Effect of Treatment with Oral Calcitriol on Calcium Metabolism and Fasting Serum 25(OH)- or 1,25(OH)2-vitamin D Level in Japanese Postmenopausal Women', Endocrine Journal50(6): 681-87.
167.
Tylavsky, F.A., K.A. Ryder, A. Lyytikäinen & S. Cheng (2005) `Vitamin D, Parathyroid Hormone, and Bone Mass in Adolescents', Journal of Nutrition135(11): 2735S-38S.
168.
Uitterlinden, A.G., P.P. Arp, B.W. Paeper, P. Charmley, S. Proll, F. Rivadeneira, et al. (2004) `Polymorphisms in the Sclerosteosis/van Buchem Disease Gene (SOST) Region are Associated with Bone-mineral Density in Elderly Whites', American Journal of Human Genetics75(6): 1032-45.
169.
US Department of Health and Human Services ( 2004) Bone Health and Osteoporosis: A Report of the Surgeon General (Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services).
170.
Van de Vijver, Gertrudis, Linda Van Speybroeck & Dani de Waele (2002) `Epigenetics: a Challenge for Genetics, Evolution, and Development?', Annals of the New York Academy of Science981: 1-6.
171.
Vieth, R. (2003) `Effects of Vitamin D on Bone and Natural Selection of Skin Color: How much Vitamin D Nutrition are we Talking About?', in S. Agarwal & S. D. Stout (eds), Bone Loss and Osteoporosis: An Anthropological Perspective (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers):139-54.
172.
Villa, M.L., R. Marcus, R.R. Delay & J.L. Kelsey (1995) `Factors Contributing to Skeletal Health of Postmenopausal Mexican-American Women', Journal of Bone and Mineral Research10(8): 1233-42.
173.
Warden, S.J., M.M. Bliziotes, K.M. Wiren, A.J. Eshleman & C.H. Turner (2005) `Neural Regulation of Bone and the Skeletal Effects of Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine)', Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology242(1-2): 1-9.
174.
Weerakulwattana, L., N. Tirawanchai & N. Bunyaratavej (2001) `Analysis of Polymorphism of the Interleukin-6 Gene in Thai Subjects with Osteoporosis', Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand84 Suppl 2: S547-52.
175.
Wei, G.S., J.L. Jackson & Herbers, J.E. Jr (2003) `Ethnic Disparity in the Treatment of Women with Established Low Bone Mass', Journal of the American Medical Women's Association58(3): 173-77.
176.
White, J.H. (2004) `Profiling 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-regulated Gene Expression by Microarray Analysis', Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology89-90(1-5): 239-44.
177.
Whitelaw, Emma (2006) `Sins of the Fathers, and their Fathers', European Journal of Human Genetics14: 131-32.
178.
Williams, D.R. (1996) `Race/Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status: Measurement and Methodological Issues', International Journal of Health Services26(3): 483-505.
179.
Wilson, James F., Michael E. Weale, A.C. Smith, F. Gratrix, B. Fletcher, M.G. Thomas, et al. (2001) `Population Genetic Structure of Variable Drug Response', Nature Genetics29 (November): 265-69.
180.
Xu, H., D.H. Xiong, Y.Y. Zhang, S.F. Lei & H.W. Deng (2005) `Association Between VDR ApaI Polymorphism and Hip Bone Mineral Density can be Modified by Body Mass Index: A Study on Postmenopausal Chinese Women', Acta Biochimica Biophysica Sinica (Shanghai)37(1): 61-67.
181.
Zajickova, K., I. Zofkova, R. Bahbouh & A. Kreplova (2002) `Vitamin D Receptor Gene Polymorphisms, Bone Mineral Density and Bone Turnover: FokI Genotype is Related to Postmenopausal Bone Mass', Physiology Research51(5): 501-09.
182.
Zhang, Y.-Y., S.-F. Lei, X.-Y. Mo, Y.-B. Wang, M.-X. Li & H.-W. Deng (2005) `The -1997 G/T Polymorphism in the COLIA1 Upstream Regulatory Region is Associated with Hip Bone Mineral Density (BMD) in Chinese Nuclear Families', Calcified Tissue International76(2): 107-12.
183.
Zhang, Z.-l., Y.-j. Qin, J.-w. He, M. Li, Q. Zhoa et al. (2004) `Association of Estrogen Receptor-alpha and Vitamin D Receptor Genotypes with Therapeutic Response to Calcium in Postmenopausal Chinese Women', Acta Pharmacolica Sinica25(12): 1690-97.
