Previous literature on the effects of musical stimuli in facilitating sleep onset has produced mixed results. This study aimed to test the efficacy of very slow pentatonic melodic sequences in facilitating sleep onset compared with a silence control condition. Twenty-two participants slept for four nights in a sleep lab with polysomnographic recording. The four nights included a first adaptation night and three experimental nights. Two nights included musical stimulation with speed in the delta and sub-delta range (1 Hz and 0.2 Hz, respectively), and one night included silence (control). The two musical stimulations consisted of pentatonic melodic sequences. Music was played from lights off until the onset of the slow-wave sleep (SWS) stage. Sleep onset latency, N1 duration, N2 latency, first N2 duration, SWS latency, sleep architecture, and spectral power of the interval from lights off to sleep onset were assessed from polysomnographic recordings. The results showed shorter latencies for sleep onset, N2, and SWS latencies with 0.2 Hz pentatonic sequences. Spectral analysis of the electroencephalography (EEG) data from lights off to sleep onset showed a significant increase in delta EEG oscillations in both musical conditions. Very slow musical stimulation can facilitate sleep onset.
BerryR. B.QuanS. F.AbreuA. R.BibbsM. L.DelRossoL.HardingS. M.MaoM. M.PlanteD. T.PressmanM. R.TroesterM. M.VaughnB. V. (2020). The AASM manual for the scoring of sleep and associated events: Rules, terminology and technical specifications. American Academy of Sleep Medicine.
4.
BiabaniN.BirdseyeA.HigginsS.DeloguA.RosenzweigJ.CvetkovicZ.NesbittA.DrakatosP.SteierJ.KumariV.O’ReganD.RosenzweigI. (2023). The neurophysiologic landscape of the sleep onset: A systematic review. Journal of Thoracic Disease, 15(8), 4530–4543. https://doi.org/10.21037/jtd-23-325
5.
BrinkM.SchäfferB.VienneauD.ForasterM.PierenR.EzeI. C.CajochenC.Probst-HenschN.RöösliM.WunderliJ.-M. (2019). A survey on exposure-response relationships for road, rail, and aircraft noise annoyance: Differences between continuous and intermittent noise. Environment International, 125, 277–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.01.043
6.
ChenC.-K.PeiY.-C.ChenN.-H.HuangL.-T.ChouS.-W.WuK. P.KoP.-C.WongA. M. K.WuC.-K. (2014). Sedative music facilitates deep sleep in young adults. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 20(4), 312–317. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2012.0050
7.
ContiL. (1999). Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS) e Depression Status Inventory (DSI). In ContiL. (Ed.), Repertorio delle scale di valutazione in psichiatria (Vol. 1, pp. 441–445). SEE.
8.
CordiM. J. (2021). Updated review of the acoustic modulation of sleep: Current perspectives and emerging concepts. Nature and Science of Sleep, 13, 1319–1330. https://doi.org/10.2147/NSS.S284805
CostaM. (2013). Effects of mode, consonance, and register in visual and word-evaluation affective priming experiments. Psychology of Music, 41(6), 713–728. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612446536
11.
CostaM.NeseM. (2020). Perceived tension, movement, and pleasantness in harmonic musical intervals and noises. Music Perception, 37(4), 298–322. https://doi.org/10.1525/MP.2020.37.4.298
12.
CostaM.VisentinC.OcchioneroM.TonettiL.ProdiN.NataleV. (2024). Pentatonic sequences and monaural beats to facilitate relaxation: An EEG study. Frontiers in Psychology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1369485
13.
DelormeA.MakeigS. (2004). EEGLAB: An open-source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 134, 9–21.
14.
EngelbregtH.BarmentloM.KeeserD.PogarellO.DeijenJ. B. (2021). Effects of binaural and monaural beat stimulation on attention and EEG. Experimental Brain Research, 239(9), 2781–2791. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-021-06155-z
15.
FaulF.ErdfelderE.LangA.-G.BuchnerA. (2007). G*Power: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146
16.
FengF.ZhangY.HouJ.CaiJ.JiangQ.LiX.ZhaoQ.LiB.-A. (2018). Can music improve sleep quality in adults with primary insomnia? A systematic review and network meta-analysis. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 77, 189–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2017.10.011
17.
FerriR.ManconiM.PlazziG.BruniO.VandiS.MontagnaP.Ferini-StrambiL.ZucconiM. (2008). A quantitative statistical analysis of the submentalis muscle EMG amplitude during sleep in normal controls and patients with REM sleep behavior disorder. Journal of Sleep Research, 17(1), 89–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2008.00631.x
18.
GyurkovicsM.ClementsG. M.LowK. A.FabianiM.GrattonG. (2021). The impact of 1/f activity and baseline correction on the results and interpretation of time-frequency analyses of EEG/MEG data: A cautionary tale. NeuroImage, 237, 118192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118192
19.
HennevinE.HuetzC.EdelineJ.-M. (2007). Neural representations during sleep: From sensory processing to memory traces. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 87(3), 416–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2006.10.006
20.
IngendohR. M.PosnyE. S.HeineA. (2023). Binaural beats to entrain the brain? A systematic review of the effects of binaural beat stimulation on brain oscillatory activity, and the implications for psychological research and intervention. PLOS ONE, 18(5), e0286023. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286023
21.
JespersenK. V.OttoM.KringelbachM.Van SomerenE.VuustP. (2019). A randomized controlled trial of bedtime music for insomnia disorder. Journal of Sleep Research, 28(4), e12817. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12817
22.
JiangJ.RicksonD.JiangC. (2016). The mechanism of music for reducing psychological stress: Music preference as a mediator. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 48, 62–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aip.2016.02.002
23.
JiangJ.ZhouL.RicksonD.JiangC. (2013). The effects of sedative and stimulative music on stress reduction depend on music preference. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 40(2), 201–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aip.2013.02.002
24.
JirakittayakornN.WongsawatY. (2018). A novel insight of effects of a 3-Hz binaural beat on sleep stages during sleep. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12, 387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00387
25.
JosephR. (1988). The right cerebral hemisphere: Emotion, music, visual-spatial skills, body-image, dreams, and awareness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44(5), 630–673. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(198809)44:5<630::AID-JCLP2270440502>3.0.CO;2-V
26.
KuulaL.HalonenR.KajantoK.LipsanenJ.MakkonenT.PeltonenM.PesonenA.-K. (2020). The effects of presleep slow breathing and music listening on polysomnographic sleep measures—A pilot trial. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 7427. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-64218-7
27.
LakensD. (2013). Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: A practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 863. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863
28.
LazicS. E.OgilvieR. D. (2007). Lack of efficacy of music to improve sleep: A polysomnographic and quantitative EEG analysis. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 63(3), 232–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2006.10.004
LinZ.-W.LiuJ.-F.XieW.-P.ChenQ.CaoH. (2021). The effect of music therapy on chronic pain, quality of life and quality of sleep in adolescents after transthoracic occlusion of ventricular septal defect. The Heart Surgery Forum, 24(2), E305–E310. https://doi.org/10.1532/hsf.3513
31.
LundH. N.PedersenI. N.Heymann-SzlachcinskaA. M.TuszewskaM.BizikG.LarsenJ. I.DragoA.KulhayE.LarsenA.SørensenH. Ø.GrønbechB.BertelsenL. R.ValentinJ. B.MainzJ.JohnsenS. P. (2023). Music to improve sleep quality in adults with depression-related insomnia (MUSTAFI): Randomized controlled trial. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 77(2), 188–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/08039488.2022.2080254
32.
McAdamsS.DouglasC.VempalaN. N. (2017). Perception and modeling of affective qualities of musical instrument sounds across pitch registers. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 153. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00153
33.
McNamaraP. (2019). The neuroscience of sleep and dreams. Cambridge University Press.
34.
NataleV. (1999). Validazione di una scala ridotta di mattutinità (rMEQ). Bollettino di Psicologia Applicata, 229, 19–26.
35.
NataleV.FabbriM.TonettiL.MartoniM. (2014). Psychometric goodness of the Mini Sleep Questionnaire. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 68(7), 568–573. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.12161
36.
OostenveldR.FriesP.MarisE.SchoffelenJ. (2011). FieldTrip: Open source software for advanced analysis of MEG, EEG, and invasive electrophysiological data. Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience : CIN, 2011, 1–9. https://doi.org/:10.1155/2011/156869
ParncuttR. (2014). The emotional connotations of major versus minor tonality: One or more origins?Musicae Scientiae, 18(3), 324–353. https://doi.org/10.1177/1029864914542842
PicardL. M.BartelL. R.GordonA. S.CepoD.WuQ.PinkL. R. (2014). Music as a sleep aid in fibromyalgia. Pain Research & Management, 19(2), 97–101. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/272108
41.
RangerA.HelmertE.BottT. S.OstermannT.AlsH.BasslerD.HautzingerM.VagedesJ. (2018). Physiological and emotional effects of pentatonic live music played for preterm neonates and their mothers in the Newborn Intensive Care Unit: A randomized controlled trial. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 41, 240–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2018.07.009
42.
RecueroM.GalvezG.BegoñaA.CrespoA. (2013). Effect of binaural stimulation on attention and EEG. Archives of Acoustics, 38(4), 517–528. https://doi.org/10.2478/aoa-2013-0061
RoderoE. (2011). Intonation and emotion: Influence of pitch levels and contour type on creating emotions. Journal of Voice, 25(1), e25–e34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvoice.2010.02.002
45.
SolcàM.MottazA.GuggisbergA. G. (2016). Binaural beats increase interhemispheric alpha-band coherence between auditory cortices. Hearing Research, 332, 233–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heares.2015.09.011
46.
SpielbergerC. D.GorsuchR. L.LusheneR.VaggP. R.JacobsG. A. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Consulting Psychologists Press.
47.
SuC.-P.LaiH.-L.ChangE.-T.YiinL.-M.PerngS.-J.ChenP.-W. (2013). A randomized controlled trial of the effects of listening to non-commercial music on quality of nocturnal sleep and relaxation indices in patients in medical intensive care unit. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 69(6), 1377–1389. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2012.06130.x
48.
TangH.-Y. J.VitielloM. V.PerlisM.RiegelB. (2015). Open-loop neurofeedback audiovisual stimulation: A pilot study of its potential for sleep induction in older adults. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 40(3), 183–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-015-9285-x
49.
TerzanoM. G.ParrinoL.SpaggiariM. C.BuccinoG. P.FioritiG.DepoortereH. (1993). Assessment of noise-induced sleep fragility in two age ranges by means of polysomnographic microstructure. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 162(2), 345–359. https://doi.org/10.1006/jsvi.1993.1123
50.
TrahanT.DurrantS. J.MüllensiefenD.WilliamsonV. J. (2018). The music that helps people sleep and the reasons they believe it works: A mixed methods analysis of online survey reports. PLOS ONE, 13(11), e0206531. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206531
51.
WelchP. (1967). The use of Fast Fourier Transform for the estimation of power spectra: A method based on time averaging over short, modified periodograms. IEEE Transactions on Audio and Electroacoustics, 15(2), 70–73.
52.
WilliamsonJ. W. (1992). The effects of ocean sounds on sleep after coronary artery bypass graft surgery. American Journal of Critical Care: An Official Publication, American Association of Critical-Care Nurses, 1(1), 91–97. https://doi.org/10.4037/ajcc1992.1.1.91
53.
ZhangQ.-L.XuN.HuangS.-T.LinZ.-W.ChenL.-W.CaoH.ChenQ. (2020). Music therapy for early postoperative pain, anxiety, and sleep in patients after mitral valve replacement. The Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgeon, 68(6), 498–502. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0040-1713352
54.
ZoomerJ.PederR.RubinA. H.LavieP. (1985). Mini Sleep Questionnaire for screening large populations for EDS complaints. In Sleep ’84 (pp. 467–470). Gustav Fisher.
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
