Marketers typically hail tourism as an economic panacea. This article provides an assessment of international tourism, with specific emphasis on the Third World. The analysis is based on a variant of world-systems theory in which the relative power imbalance between the developed core countries and less-developed periphery countries of the world brings about the dependence and de facto exploitation of the latter We conclude with a summary of the positive and negative effects of tourism on host cultures and a call for more careful and balanced consideration of these aspects of tourism, in both planning by developing nations and tourism research by marketing academics.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Aemi, Mary J. (1972). "The Social Effects of Tourism."Current Anthropology, 13 (April): 162.
2.
Albers, Patricia , and William R. James (1988). "Travel Photography: A Methodological Approach."Annals of Tourism Research, 15 (1): 134-158.
3.
Aschenbrenner, Stanley (1986). Life in a Changing Greek Village: Karpofora and Its Reluctant Farmers. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
4.
Ascher, Francois (1985). Tourism: Transnational Corporations and Cultural Identities. Paris: UNESCO.
5.
Bachmann, Philip (1988). "The Maassai—Choice of East African Tourists—Admired and Ridiculed." In Tourism: Manufacturing the Exotic, edited by Pierre Rossel. Document 61. Copenhagen, Denmark: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, pp. 47-63.
6.
Belk, Russell W. (1988). "Third World Consumer Culture."Marketing and Development: Toward Broader Dimensions, edited by Erdogan Kumcu and A. Fuat Firat. Greenwich, CT: JAI. Press, pp. 103-127.
7.
Belk, Russell W. (1993). "Third World Tourism: Panacea or Poison? The Case of Nepal."Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 5 (2): 27-68.
8.
Belk, Russell W. (1994). "AIDS and Thai Students." Paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Association for Consumer Research Conference, 13-16 June, in Singapore.
9.
Belk, Russell W. (1995). "Hyperreality and Globalization: Culture in the Age of Ronald McDonald."Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 8 (3-4).
10.
Belk, Russell W. , Melanie Wallendorf, and John Sherry (1989). "The Sacred and the Profane in Consumer Behavior: Theodicy on the Odyssey."Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (June): 1-38.
11.
Bendix, Regina (1989). "Tourism and Cultural Displays: Inventing Traditions for Whom?"Journal of American Folklore, 102 (April-June): 131-146.
12.
Bensen, Joe , and Robert Silberman (1987). "Tourist Photographs as Souvenirs." In Prospects: An Annual of American Cultural Studies, vol. 11, edited by Jack Salzman. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 261-271.
13.
Berndt, Ronald M. , and Catherine H. Berndt (1992). Aboriginal Australian Art: A Visual Perspective. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Octopus Publishing Group.
14.
Black, Jeremy (1985). The British and the Grand Tour. London: Dover.
15.
Boniface, Priscilla , and Peter J. Fowler (1993). Heritage and Tourism in "The Global Village. "London: Routledge.
16.
Boorstin, Daniel J. (1964). The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America. New York: Harper.
17.
Bosselman, Fred P. (1978). "Prologue: Jerusalem—The Tourists' Gifts." In In the Wake of the Tourist: Managing Special Places in Eight Countries, edited by Fred P. Bosselman. Washington, DC: The Conservation Foundation, pp. 19-35.
18.
Bowman, Glenn (1989). "Fucking Tourists: Sexual Relations and Tourism in Jerusalem's Old City."Critique of Anthropology, 9 (Autumn): 77-93.
19.
Brameld, Theodore , and Midori Matsuyama (1977). Tourism as Cultural Learning: Two Controversial Case Studies in Educational Anthropology. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
20.
Brannen, Mary Yoko (1992). "Cross-Cultural Materialism: Commodifying Culture in Japan." In Meaning, Measure, and Morality of Materialism, edited by Floyd Rudmin and Marsha Richins. Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, pp. 167-180.
21.
Buck, Roy C. (1978). "Boundary Maintenance Revisited: Tourist Experience in an Old Order Amish Community."Rural Sociology43 (Summer): 221-234.
22.
Burger, Veit (1978). "The Economic Impact of Tourism in Nepal." Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
23.
Butler, Richard (1992). "Alternative Tourism: The Thin End of the Wedge." In Tourism Alternatives: Potentials and Problems in the Development of Tourism, edited by Valene L. Smith and William R. Eadington. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 31-46.
24.
Canan, Penelope , and Michael Hennessy (1989). "The Growth Machine, Tourism, and the Selling of Culture."Sociological Perspectives, 32 (Summer): 227-243.
25.
Chalfen, Richard (1980). "Tourist Photography."Afterimage, 8 (Summer): 26-29.
26.
Churchill, David (1991). "International Leisure Habits Start to Converge."Financial Times, 6 June: 10.
27.
Cohen, Erk (1971). "Arab Boys and Tourist Girls in a Mixed Jewish-Arab Community."International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 12 (December): 217-233.
28.
Cohen, Erk (1972). "Toward a Sociology of International Tourism."Social Research, 39 (Spring): 164-182.
29.
Cohen, Erk (1978). "The Impact of Tourism on the Physical Environment."Annals of Tourism Research, 5 (April-June): 215-237.
30.
Cohen, Erk (1979). "A Phenomenology of Tourist Experiences."Sociology, 13 (May): 179-201.
31.
Cohen, Erk (1984). "The Sociology of Tourism: Approaches, Issues, and Findings." In Annual Review of Sociology vol. 10, edited by Ralph H. Turner. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, pp. 373-392.
32.
Cohen, Jeffrey H. (1990). "Strategies in Two Zapotec Weaving Communities of Oaxaca, Mexico."Society for Economic Anthropology Newsletter, 9 (2): 12-29.
33.
Costa, Janeen Arnold (1988a). "The History of Migration and Political Economy in Rural Greece: A Case Study."Journal of Modern Greek Studies, 6 (2): 159-185.
34.
Costa, Janeen Arnold (1988b). "Systems Integration and Attitudes toward Greek Rural Life: A Case Study."Anthropological Quarterly, 61 (2): 73-90.
35.
Costa, Janeen Arnold (1993a). "The Periphery of Pleasure or Pain: Consumer Culture in the E.C. Mediterranean of 1992." In Culture Change and the New Europe: Perspectives on the European Community, edited by Thomas M. Wilson and M. Estellie Smith. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 81-98.
36.
Costa, Janeen Arnold (1993b). "Tourism as Consumption Precipitate: An Exploration and Example." In Proceedings of the 1992 ACR European Summer Conference: European Advances in Consumer Research, edited by W. Fred van Raaij and Cary J. Bamossy. Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research.
37.
Costa, Janeen Arnold (1994). "Hawaiian Tourism and the Concept of Paradise." Under review by Culture, Consumption, and Markets.
38.
Crick, Malcolm (1989). "Representations of International Tourism in the Social Sciences: Sun, Sex, Sights, Savings, and Servility." In Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 18. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, pp. 307-344.
39.
Culler, Jonathan (1981). "Semiotics of Tourism."American Journal of Semiotics, 1 (1-2): 127-140.
40.
Curtin, Philip (1984). Cross Cultural Trade in World History. New York: Cambridge University Press.
41.
de Kadt, Emanuel , ed. (1979). Tourism: Passport to Development? Perspectives on the Social and Cultural Effects of Tourism in Developing Countries. Revised papers from the 1976 seminar on tourism in developing countries jointly sponsored by the World Bank and UNESCO. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
42.
Debord, Guy (1970). Society of the Spectacle. Detroit, Ml: Black and Red.
43.
Dill, Samuel (1956). Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius. Cleveland, OH: Meridian Books.
44.
Dunbar, S. (1977). "Why Travel?"Landscape, 21 (Spring-Summer): 45-47.
45.
Duncan, James S. (1978). "The Social Construction of Unreality: An Interactivist Approach to the Tourist's Cognition of Environment." In Humanistic Geography: Prospects and Problems, edited by David Ley and Marwyn S. Samuels. Chicago: Maaroufa Press, pp. 269-282.
46.
Eco, Umberto (1983). Travels in Hyperreality: Essays. Translated by William Weaver. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
47.
England, Richard (1980). "Architecture for Tourists."International Social Science Journal, 32 (1): 44-54.
48.
Evans, Nancy H. (1978). "Tourism and Cross-Cultural Communication." In Studies in Third World Societies, edited by Mario D. Zamora, Vinson H. Sutlive, and Nathan Altshuler. Williamsburg, VA: Department of Anthropology, College of William and Mary, pp. 41-53.
49.
Evans-Pritchard, Deirdre (1993). "Ancient Art in Modern Context."Annals of Tourism Research, 20 (1): 9-31.
50.
Feifer, Maxine (1986). Tourism in History: From Imperial Rome to the Present. New York: Stein and Day.
51.
Fisher, James F. (1990). Sherpas: Reflections on Change in Himalayan Nepal. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
52.
Fisher, Robert J. , and Linda L. Price (1991). "International Pleasure Travel Motivations and Post-Vacation Attitude Change."Journal of Leisure Research, 23 (3): 193-208.
53.
Foster, Robert J. (1991). "Making National Cultures in the Global Ecumene." In Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 20, edited by Bernard Siegel, Alan R. Beals, and Stephen A. Tyler. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, pp. 235-260.
54.
Forster, John (1964). "The Sociological Consequences of Tourism."International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 5 (September): 217-227.
55.
Garcia, Asun (1988). "And Why Don't You Go to the Seychelles?" In Tourism: Manufacturing the Exotic, edited by Pierre Rossel. Document 61. Copenhagen, Denmark: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, pp. 93-115.
56.
Geshekter, Charles L. (1978). "International Tourism and African Underdevelopment: Some Reflections on Kenya." In Tourism and Social Change: Studies in Third World Societies, no. 6, edited by Mario D. Zamora, Vinson S. Sutlive, and Nathan Altshuler. Williamsburg, VA: Department of Anthropology, College of William and Mary, pp. 57-88.
57.
Gmelch, George (1980). "Return Migration." In Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 9, edited by Bernard J. Siegel, Alan R. Beals, and Stephen A. Tyler. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, pp. 135-159.
58.
Graburn, Nelson H. (1987). "Material Symbols in Japanese Domestic Tourism." In Mirror and Metaphor: Material and Social Constructions of Reality, edited by Daniel W. Ingerson Jr. and Gordon Bronitsky. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, pp. 17-27.
59.
Graburn, Nelson H. (1989). "Tourism: The Sacred Journey."Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, 2d ed., edited by Valene L. Smith. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 21-36.
60.
Greenwood, Davydd J. (1989). "Culture by the Pound: An Anthropological Perspective on Tourism as Cultural Commoditization." In Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, 2d ed., edited by Valene L. Smith. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 171-186.
61.
Groves, Ronald (1994). "AIDS and Attitudes: The Thai Experience." Paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Association for Consumer Research Conference, 13-16 June, in Singapore.
62.
Hahn, Cynthia (1990). "Loca Sancta Souvenirs: Sealing the Pilgrim's Experience." In The Blessings of Pilgrimage, edited by Robert Ousterhout. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, pp. 85-96.
63.
Hall, C. Michael (1992). "Sex Tourism in South-East Asia." In Tourism and the Less Developed Countries, edited by David Harrison. New York: Halsted Press, pp. 64-74.
64.
Harrison, David (1992). "Tourism to Less Developed Countries: The Social Consequences." In Tourism and the Less Developed Countries, edited by David Harrison. New York: Halsted Press, pp. 19-54.
65.
Horne, Donald (1984). The Great Museum: The Re-Presentation of History. London: Pluto Press.
66.
Horne, Donald (1992). The Intelligent Tourist. McMahons Point, NSW, Australia: Margaret Gee.
67.
Hovik, Tord , and Turid Heisbert (1980). "Center-Periphery Tourism and Self Reliance."International Social Science Journal, 32 (1): 69-98.
68.
Husbands, W. (1981). "Centers, Peripheries, Tourism, and Socio-spatial Development."Ontario Geography17: 37-59.
69.
Jager, Bernd (1975). "Theorizing, Journeying, Dwelling." In Duquesne Studies in Phenomenological Psychology, vol. 2, edited by Amedeo Giorgi, Constance T. Fischer, and Edward L. Murray. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press, pp. 235-260.
70.
Johnson, R. Boyd (1978). "The Role of Tourism in Tongan Culture." In Studies in Third World Societies, edited by Mario D. Zamora, Vinson H. Sutlive, and Nathan Altshuler. Williamsburg, VA: Department of Anthropology, College of William and Mary, pp. 55-68.
71.
Jules-Rosette, Bennetta (1984). The Messages of Tourist Art: An African Semiotic System in Comparative Perspective. New York: Plenum Press.
72.
Kenny, Michael (1972). "The Return of the Spanish Migrant."Nord Nytt, 2: 119-129.
73.
Keyfitz, Nathan (1982). "Development and the Elimination of Poverty."Economic Development and Cultural Change, 30 (April): 649-670.
74.
Kirch, Debra C. (1984). "Tourism as Conflict in Polynesia: Status Degradation among Tongan Handicraft Sellers." Ph.D. diss., Department of Anthropology, University of Hawaii.
75.
Kotler, Philip , Donald H. Haider, and Irving Rein (1993). Marketing Places: Attracting Investment, Industry, and Tourism to Cities, States, and Nations. New York: Free Press.
76.
Lanfant, Marie-Françoise (1980). "Introduction: Tourism in the Process of Internationalization."International Social Science Journal, 32 (1): 14-43.
77.
Lanfant, Marie-Françoise , and Nelson H. H. Graburn (1992). "International Tourism Reconsidered: The Principle of the Alternative." In Tourism Alternatives: Potentials and Problems in the Development of Tourism, edited by Valene L. Smith and William R. Eadington. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 88-112.
78.
excerpted from (1993) Common Boundary, September-October.
79.
Lee, John (1988). Tourism and Development in the Third World. London: Routledge.
80.
Leed, Eric J. (1991). The Mind of the Traveler: From Gilgamesh to Global Tourism. New York: Basic Books.
81.
Leong, Wai-Teng (1989). "Culture and the State: Manufacturing Traditions for Tourism."Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 6 (December): 355-375.
82.
Liebes, Tamar , and Elihu Katz (1990). The Export of Meaning: Cross-Cultural Readings of Dallas. New York: Oxford University Press.
83.
Littrell, Mary Ann , Lynn F. Anderson, and Pamela J. Brown (1993). "What Makes a Craft Souvenir Authentic?"Annals of Tourism Research, 20 (1): 197-215.
84.
MacCannell, Dean (1972). "Staged Authenticity: Arrangements of Social Space in Tourist Settings."American Journal of Sociology, 79 (November): 589-603.
85.
MacCannell, Dean (1989). The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class. 2d ed.New York: Schocken Books.
86.
MacCannell, Dean (1992). Empty Meeting Grounds: The Tourist Papers. London: Routledge.
87.
Machlis, Gary E. , and William R. Burch Jr. (1983). "Relations between Strangers: Cycles of Structure and Meaning in Tourist Systems."Sociological Review, 31 (November): 666-692.
88.
Madrigal, Robert , and Lynn R. Kahle (1994). "Predicting Vacation Activity Preferences on the Basis of Value-System Segmentation."Journal of Travel Research, 32 (Winter): 22-28.
89.
Mathews, Harry G. (1978). International Tourism: A Political and Social Analysis. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman.
90.
Mathiason, Alister , and Geoffrey Hall (1982). Tourism: Economic, Physical, and Social Impacts. London: Longman.
91.
Maurer, Jean-Luc , and Arlette Zeigler (1988). "Tourism and Indonesian Cultural Minorities."Tourism: Manufacturing the Exotic, edited by Pierre Rossel. Copenhagen, Denmark: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, pp. 65-92.
92.
McKean, Philip F. (1989). "Economic Dualism and Cultural Involution in Bali." In Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, 2d ed., edited by Valene L. Smith. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 119-138.
93.
Mergen, Bernard (1978). "Travel as Play." In Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture: Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Victor Turner and Edith Turner. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, pp. 103-111.
94.
Morphy, Howard (1991). Ancestral Connections: Art and an Aboriginal System of Knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
95.
Morrow, Lance (1982). "Is the Going Still Good?"Time (international edition), 31 May: 40-42.
96.
Morrow, Lance (1990). "Trashing Mount Sinai."Time, 135 (19 March): 92.
97.
Murphy, Peter E. (1985). Tourism: A Community Approach. New York: Methuan.
98.
Myers, Fred (1994). "Beyond the Intentional Fallacy: Art Criticism and Ethnography of Aboriginal Acrylic Painting."Visual Anthropology Review, 10 (Spring): 10-43.
99.
Myers, N. (1975). "The Tourist as an Agent for Development and Wildlife Conservation: The Case of Kenya."International Journal of Social Economy, 2 (1): 26-42.
100.
Nash, Dennison (1989). "Tourism as a Form of Imperialism." In Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, 2d ed., edited by Valene L. Smith. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 37-52.
101.
Neumann, Mark (1988). "Wandering through the Museum: Experience and Identity in a Spectator Culture."Border! Lines, 12 (Summer): 19-27.
102.
Nobuo, Takagi (1988). "Japanese Abroad: Armed with Slippers and Soy Sauce."Japan Quarterly, 35 (October-December): 332-336.
103.
Oppermann, Martin (1993). "Tourism Space in Developing Countries."Annals of Tourism Research, 20 (3): 535-556.
104.
O'Rourke, Dennis (1987). Cannibal Tours. Documentary film. Canberra, Australian Capitol Territory: O'Rourke and Associates.
105.
Ostergaard, Per (1994). "Prostitution as a Part of Consumption Patterns in Thailand: Implications for the Fight against AIDS." Paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Association for Consumer Research Conference, 13-16 June, in Singapore.
106.
Owen, C. (1968). Britons Abroad. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
107.
Pearce, Douglas G. (1992). "Alternative Tourism: Concepts, Classifications, and Questions." In Tourism Alternatives: Potentials and Problems in the Development of Tourism, edited by Valene L. Smith and William R. Eadington. A publication of the International Academy of the Study for Tourism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 15-30.
108.
Pearce, Philip L. (1982). The Social Psychology of Tourist Behavior. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
109.
Phillips, Janet B. (1987). "American Tourism in Europe: Seeing Europe as an American Model for the Construction of the Civilized." Ph.D. diss., Department of Anthropology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
110.
Plumb, John H. (1963). "The Grand Tour." In Man and Centuries, edited by John H. Plumb. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, pp. 334-342.
111.
Poling, Bill (1992). "Most Industry Segments Anticipate Market Growth...."Travel Weekly, 51 (89): 8.
112.
Redfoot, Donald L. (1984). "Touristic Authenticity, Touristic Angst, and Modern Reality."Qualitative Sociology, 7 (Winter): 291-309.
113.
Reuters, Ltd. (1993). "International Tourism Picked Up in 1992—OECD" Reuters, 9 March.
114.
Richter, Linda K. (1989). The Politics of Tourism in Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
115.
Riley, Pamela J. (1988). "Road Culture of International Long-Term Budget Travelers."Annals of Tourism Research, 15 (3): 313-328.
116.
Robertson, Roland (1992). Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture. London: Sage.
117.
Romanyshyn, Robert D. (1989). Technology as Symptom and Dream. London: Routledge.
118.
Rossel, Pierre (1988). "Tourism and Cultural Minorities: Double Marginalization and Survival Strategies." In Tourism: Manufacturing the Exotic, edited by Pierre Rossel. Document 61. Copenhagen, Denmark: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, pp. 1-20.
119.
Salt Lake Tribune (1994). "World Tourism."30 January: H8.
Schmidt, Catherine J. (1979). "The Guided Tour: Insulated Adventure."Urban Life, 7 (January): 441-467.
122.
Sears, John F. (1989). Sacred Places: American Tourist Attractions in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Oxford University Press.
123.
Shenhav-Keller, Shelly (1993). "The Israeli Souvenir: Its Text and Context."Annals of Tourism Research, 20 (1): 182-196.
124.
Silver, Ira (1993). "Marketing Authenticity in Third World Countries."Annals of Tourism Research, 20 (2): 302-318.
125.
Smith, Valene L. (1977). "Eskimo Tourism: Micro-Models and Marginal Men." In Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, edited by Valene L. Smith. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 51-70.
126.
Smith, Valene L. , and William R. Eadington, eds. (1992). Tourism Alternatives: Potentials and Problems in the Development of Tourism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
127.
Stanton, Max E. (1977). "The Polynesian Culture Center: A Multi-Ethnic Model of Seven Pacific Cultures." In Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, edited by Valene L. Smith. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 193-206.
128.
Suralya, Jug (1990). "Trouble in Shangri La: High Anxiety in the Himalayan Kingdom as Tourists Stay Away."Far Eastern Economic Review, 148 (3 May): 36-37.
129.
Swain, Margaret Byrne (1989). "Gender Roles in Indigenous Tourism: Kuna Mola, Kuna Yala, and Cultural Survival." In Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, 2d ed., edited by Valene L. Smith. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 83-104.
130.
Teye, Victor B. (1988). "Coups D'état and African Tourism: A Study of Ghana."Annals of Tourism Research, 15 (3): 329-356.
131.
Theilmann, John M. (1987). "Medieval Pilgrims and the Origins of Tourism."Journal of Popular Culture, 20 (Spring): 93-102.
132.
Truong, Thanh-Dam (1990). Sex, Money, and Morality: Prostitution and Tourism in Southeast Asia. London: Zed Books.
133.
Turner, Louis (1973). Multinational Companies and the Third World. New York: Hill and Wang.
134.
Turner, Louis (1976). "The International Division of Leisure: Tourism and the Third World."World Development, 4 (March): 253-260.
135.
Turner, Louis , and John Ash (1975). The Golden Hordes: International Tourism and the Pleasure Periphery. London: Constable.
136.
Turner, Louis , and Edith Turner, eds. (1978). Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture: Anthropological Perspectives. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
137.
Urry, John (1990). The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies. London: Sage Publications.
138.
Van Maanen, John (1992). "Displacing Disney: Some Notes on the Flow of Culture."Qualitative Sociology, 15 (Spring): 5-35.
139.
Wagner, Ulla (1981). "Tourism in the Gambia: Development or Dependency?"Ethnos, 46 (3-4): 190-206.
140.
Wallerstein, Immanuel (1976). The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century. New YorkAcademic Press.
141.
Wilk, Richard R. (1993). "'It's Destroying a Whole Generation': Television and Moral Discourse in Belize."Visual Anthropology, 5: 229-244.
142.
World Travel and Tourism Council (1993). Travel and Tourism: A New Economic Perspective. Research edition. Brussels, Belgium.
