Invisible Women: The Relationship Between Satisfaction with Fashion Clothing Choices and Well-Being in Middle-Aged Women

Abstract

Fashion is an important aspect of life, and impacts people's sense of belonging, well-being, self-esteem, behaviour, cognition, and emotions. However, there is a lack of understanding of how current “youthful” fashion impacts the well-being of middle-aged female consumers. This study examined the mediating role of ageing anxiety, appearance anxiety, and the moderating effects of an interest in fashion, as well as fashion spending power and age on the relationship between satisfaction with fashion clothing choices and well-being. Survey responses were collected from 252 middle-aged women residing in the United Kingdom (UK). The results showed that satisfaction with fashion clothing choices was a significant predictor of well-being, and this relationship was partly mediated by social avoidance behaviour. The model explained 19% of the variance in middle-aged women's well-being. The content analysis of open-ended responses asking about challenges middle-aged women face when shopping for clothes revealed that size, fit, and style were the main areas of concern. This cohort, overall, felt overlooked by designers, manufacturers, and retailers. Pushing middle-aged women from the market or hoping they will just fit into the “young” or “mature” category can lead them to disengage socially and from mainstream fashion brands. Therefore, it is important for the industry to reconsider its current provision and cater to the needs of this important consumer group.

Keywords

fashion satisfaction middle-aged women consumer well-being market exclusion social avoidance appearance anxiety

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Adam

Galinsky

A. D.

(2012). Enclothed cognition. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(4), 918–925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.02.008

Andrews

(2023). The superhero effect: How enclothed cognition can impact on the perceptions and actions of serving UK police officers. The Police Journal, 97(3), 417–434. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032258X231184778

Average UK salary in 2024 by industry and education | Indeed.com UK. (n.d.). Retrieved February 16, 2026, from https://uk.indeed.com/career-advice/pay-salary/average-uk-salary

Bearne

(2010, November 9). Marks & Spencer to axe Portfolio in brand shake up. Drapers. https://www.drapersonline.com/companies/multiples-and-etailers/marks-spencer-to-axe-portfolio-in-brand-shake-up

Bye

McKinney

(2007). Sizing up the wardrobe—why we keep clothes that do not fit. Fashion Theory, 11(4), 483–498. https://doi.org/10.2752/175174107X250262

Chonody

J. M.

Teater

(2016). Why do I dread looking old?: A test of social identity theory, terror management theory, and the double standard of aging. Journal of Women & Aging, 28(2), 112–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/08952841.2014.950533

Çili

(2023). Personal objects and dress as instruments for anchoring the self, remembering the past, and enhancing well-being. In Slater

Atkin

(Eds.), Memories of dress: Recollections of material identities (pp. 23–35). Bloomsbury Publishing.

Çili

Stopa

(2019, July). Understanding memory-focused cognitive-behavioural interventions through a narrative identity perspective. Paper presented at the 9th World Congress of Behavioural and Cognitive Therapies, Berlin, Germany.

Civile

Obhi

(2017). Students wearing police uniforms exhibit biased attention towards individuals wearing hoodies. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(62), 243471. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00062

10.

Clarke

L. H.

Griffin

Maliha

(2009). Bat wings, bunions, and Turkey wattles: Body transgressions and older women’s strategic clothing choices. Ageing and Society, 29(5), 709–726. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X08008283

11.

Conway

M. A.

(2005). Memory and the self. Journal of Memory and Language, 53(4), 594–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2005.08.005

12.

Conway

M. A.

Singer

J. A.

Tagini

(2004). The self and autobiographical memory: Correspondence and coherence. Social Cognition, 22(5), 491–529. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.22.5.491.50768

13.

Crane

(2012). Fashion and its social agendas: Class, gender, and identity in clothing. University of Chicago Press.

14.

Cutright

K. M.

Srna

Samper

(2019). The aesthetics we wear: How attire influences what we buy. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 4(4), 387–397. https://doi.org/10.1086/705028

15.

Dittmar

(2007). Understanding the impact of consumer culture. In Consumer culture, identity and well-being (pp. 19–42). Psychology Press.

16.

Gagne

D. A.

von Holle

Brownley

K. A.

Runfola

C. D.

Hofmeier

S. M.

Branch

K. E.

Bulik

C. M.

(2012). Eating disorder symptoms and weight and shape concerns in a large web-based convenience sample of women ages 50 and above: Results of the gender and body image (GABI) study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 45(7), 832–844. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22030

17.

Gino

Norton

M. I.

Ariely

(2010). The Counterfeit Self: The Deceptive Costs of Faking It: The Deceptive Costs of Faking It. Psychological Science, 21(5), 712–720. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610366545

18.

Gino

Norton

M. I.

Ariely

(2010). The counterfeit self: The deceptive costs of faking it. Psychological Science, 21(5), 712–720. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610366545

19.

Goncu-Berk

(2015). Fashion Trends. Bloomsbury Fashion Central. https://www.bloomsburyfashioncentral.com/article?docid=b-9781474280655&tocid=b-9781474280655-BIBART12001-ED

20.

Hannover

Kühnen

(2002). “The clothing makes the self” via knowledge activation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32(12), 2513–2525. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb02754.x

21.

Hayes

A. F.

(2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford publications.

22.

Horton

C. B.

Jr Adam

Galinsky

A. D.

(2025). Evaluating the evidence for enclothed cognition: Z-curve and meta-analyses. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 51(2), 203–221. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672231182478

23.

Household disposable income by age group 2022 - Office for National Statistics. (n.d.). Retrieved September 20, 2023, from https://www.ons.gov.uk/aboutus/transparencyandgovernance/freedomofinformationfoi/householddisposableincomebyagegroup2022.

24.

How Different Age Groups Are Using Social Media 2024. (n.d.). Target Internet. Retrieved August 30, 2024, from https://targetinternet.com/resources/how-different-age-groups-are-using-social-media-2024/

25.

Jackson

Shaw

(2008). Mastering Fashion Marketing. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

26.

James

(1890). The principles of psychology (Vols. 1-2). Henry Holt and Company.

27.

Kawamura

(2021). Fashion-ology: An introduction to fashion studies. Bloomsbury Publishing.

28.

Lasher

K. P.

Faulkender

P. J.

(1993). Measurement of aging anxiety: Development of the anxiety about aging scale. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 37(4), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.2190/1u69-9au2-v6lh-9y1l

29.

Ledbetter

(2017, August 31). Zara used models over 40 and totally missed the point. HuffPost UK. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/zara-models-over-40-older-models_n_59a82036e4b0a8d14573b618

30.

Lee

R. A.

(1997). The youth bias in advertising. American Demographics, 19(1), 46–50. https://www.proquest.com/trade-journals/youth-bias-advertising/docview/200553287/se-2?accountid=10342

31.

Lewis

D. C.

Medvedev

Seponski

D. M.

(2011). Awakening to the desires of older women: Deconstructing ageism within fashion magazines. Journal of Aging Studies, 25(2), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaging.2010.08.016

32.

Lewis-Smith

(2014). Ageing, anxiety and appearance: Exploring the body image of women in midlife. Journal of Aesthetic Nursing, 3(3), 134–135. https://doi.org/10.12968/joan.2014.3.3.134

33.

Masuch

C. S.

Hefferon

(2014). Understanding the links between positive psychology and fashion: A grounded theory analysis. International Journal of Fashion Studies, 1(2), 227–246. https://doi.org/10.1386/infs.1.2.227_1

34.

McLean

S. A.

Paxton

S. J.

Wertheim

E. H.

(2010). Factors associated with body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in women in midlife. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 43(6), 527–536. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.20737

35.

Miller

(1993). Image of seniors improves in ads. Marketing News, 27(25), 8. https://arts.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=9411070500&site=ehost-live&scope=site

36.

Monks

Costello

Dare

Reid Boyd

(2021). We’re continually comparing ourselves to something": Navigating body image, media, and social media ideals at the nexus of appearance, health, and wellness. Sex Roles, 84(3-4), 221–237. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01162-w

37.

Mortality in England and Wales - Office for National Statistics. (2022). www.ons.gov.uk. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/lifeexpectancies/articles/mortalityinenglandandwales/pastandprojectedtrendsinaveragelifespan

38.

Mumel

Prodnik

(2005). Grey consumers are all the same, they even dress the same – myth or reality? Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal, 9(4), 434–449. https://doi.org/10.1108/13612020510620803

39.

Nelson

(2003). Narrative and self, myth and memory: Emergence of the cultural self. In Fivush

Haden

C. A.

(Eds.), Autobiographical memory and the construction of a narrative self: Developmental and cultural perspectives (pp. 3–28). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

40.

Nelson

T. D.

(2011). Ageism: The strange case of prejudice against the older you. In Wiener

Willborn

(Eds.), Disability and aging discrimination (pp. 37–47). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6293-5_2

41.

Papapanou

T. K.

Darviri

Kanaka-Gantenbein

Tigani

Michou

Vlachakis

Chrousos

G. P.

Bacopoulou

(2023). Strong correlations between social appearance anxiety, use of social media, and feelings of loneliness in adolescents and young adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(5), 4296. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20054296

42.

Pech

G. P.

Caspar

E. A.

(2023). Does the cowl make the monk? The effect of military and red cross uniforms on empathy for pain, sense of agency, and moral behaviors. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1255835. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1255835

43.

Peluchette

J. V.

Karl

(2007). The impact of workplace attire on employee self-perceptions. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 18(3), 345–360. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.1208

44.

Rocha

M. A. V.

Hammond

Hawkins

(2005). Age, gender and national factors in fashion consumption. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal, 9(4), 380–390. https://doi.org/10.1108/13612020510620768

45.

Saucier

M. G.

(2004). Midlife and beyond: Issues for aging women. Journal of Counseling & Development, 82(4), 420–425. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2004.tb00328.x

46.

Sedikides

Wildschut

(2018). Finding meaning in nostalgia. Review of General Psychology, 22(1), 48–61. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000109

47.

tate pension age changes and retirement age increases | Age UK. (n.d.). Retrieved February 16, 2026, from https://www.ageuk.org.uk/information-advice/money-legal/pensions/state-pension/changes-to-state-pension-age/

48.

Suganya

M. S.

Rajamani

Buvanesweri

(2024). Examining the influence of fashion on psychological well-being: Investigating the correlation between apparel selections, self-confidence, and mental health. International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews, 11(1), 118–128. https://doi.org/10.1729/Journal.38637

49.

Tajfel

Turner

J. C.

(1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In Austin

W. G.

Worchel

(Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Brooks/Cole.

50.

Tennant

Hiller

Fishwick

Platt

Joseph

Weich

Parkinson

Secker

Stewart-Brown

(2007). The Warwick-Edinburgh mental well-being scale (WEMWBS): Development and UK validation. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 5(1), 63. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-5-63

51.

Tiggemann

McCourt

(2013). Body appreciation in adult women: Relationships with age and body satisfaction. Body Image, 10(4), 624–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.07.003

52.

Tulving

(2002). Chronesthesia: Conscious awareness of subjective time. In Stuss

D. T.

Knight

R. T.

(Eds.), Principles of frontal lobe function (pp. 311–325). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195134971.003.0020

53.

Turner

J. C.

Brown

R. J.

Tajfel

(1979). Social comparison and group interest in ingroup favouritism. European Journal of Social Psychology, 9(2), 187–204. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420090207

54.

Twigg

(2009). Clothing, identity and the embodiment of age. In Aging identity: A dialogue with postmodernism (pp. 93–104).

55.

Twigg

(2010). How does vogue negotiate age?: Fashion, the body, and the older woman. Fashion Theory, 4(4), 471–490. https://doi.org/10.2752/175174110X12792058833898

56.

Twigg

(2012). Adjusting the cut: Fashion, the body and age on the UK high street. Ageing & Society, 32(6), 1030–1054. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X11000754

57.

Twigg

(2013). Fashion and Age: Dress, the Body and Later Life. Bloomsbury Academic.

58.

Veale

Eshkevari

Kanakam

Ellison

Da Costa

A. C. C.

Werner

(2014). The appearance anxiety inventory: Validation of a process measure in the treatment of body dysmorphic disorder. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 42(5), 605–616. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1352465813000556

59.

Veblen

(1899). The theory of the leisure class. Routledge. http://moglen.law.columbia.edu/LCS/theoryleisureclass.pdf

60.

Walker

Mesnard

(2011). What do mature consumers want? . A.T. Kearney. http://www.telme.eu/_data/container/container_47_en/File.3/pdf_what_do_mature_consumers_want_1317035107da61.pdf

61.

Wang

Lei

Chao

M. C.

(2021). The clothes that make you eat healthy: The impact of clothes style on food choice. Journal of Business Research, 132, 787–799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.10.063

62.

Watson

(2004). The sartorial self: William James’s philosophy of dress. History of Psychology, 7(3), 211–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/1093-4510.7.3.211

63.

Youthquake Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8. 2022, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/youthquake

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.16 MB

0.03 MB