Risk Factors for Child-To-Parent Violence Among Early Adolescents: Evidence From a National Sample

Abstract

Research on child-to-parent violence (CPV) has predominantly focused on adolescents aged 12 years and older, which limits understanding of CPV during early adolescence. To address this gap, this study analyzes data from 769 adolescents aged 9–11 years and their parents, collected through the 2018 Korean National Comprehensive Survey on Children. It examines associations between CPV and factors at the individual (sex and depressive/anxiety symptoms), family (family structure, household income, parental education level, child abuse, and marital violence), and school (peer victimization). Logistic regression analysis revealed that depressive and anxiety symptoms, household income, child abuse, and peer victimization significantly predicted CPV. Peer victimization in the school environment emerged as the strongest predictor, surpassing individual and family factors. These results underscore the need for a systematic approach that integrates interventions across school, family, and individual domains.

Keywords

child-to-parent violence early adolescent depressive/anxiety symptoms child abuse peer victimization

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Achenbach

T. M.

(1991). Manual for the child behavior checklist/4–18 and 1991 profile. University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.

Agnew

Huguley

(1989). Adolescent violence toward parents. Journal of Marriage and Family, 51(3), 699–711. https://doi.org/10.2307/352169

Akse

Hale

Engels

Raaijmakers

Meeus

(2007). Co-occurrence of depression and delinquency in personality types. European Journal of Personality, 21(2), 235–256. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.604

Arias-Rivera

García

V. H.

(2020). Theoretical framework and explanatory factors for child-to-parent violence. A scoping review. Anales de Psicología, 36(2), 220–231. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.338881

Armenta

B. E.

Sittner

K. J.

Whitbeck

L. B.

(2016). Predicting the onset of alcohol use and the development of alcohol use disorder among indigenous adolescents. Child Development, 87(3), 870–882. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12506

Armstrong

G. S.

Cain

C. M.

Wylie

L. E.

Muftic

L. R.

Bouffard

L. A.

(2018). Risk factor profile of youth incarcerated for child-to-parent violence: A nationally representative sample. Journal of Criminal Justice, 58, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2018.06.002

Baraldi

A. N.

Enders

C. K.

(2010). An introduction to modern missing data analyses. Journal of School Psychology, 48(1), 5–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2009.10.001

Beckmann

Bergmann

M. C.

Fischer

Mößle

(2021). Risk and protective factors of child-to-parent violence: A comparison between physical and verbal aggression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(3–4), 1309–1334. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517746129

Benedini

K. M.

Fagan

A. A.

Gibson

C. L.

(2016). The cycle of victimization: The relationship between childhood maltreatment and adolescent peer victimization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 59, 111–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.08.003

10.

Bergeron

Schneider

B. H.

(2005). Explaining cross-national differences in peer-directed aggression: A quantitative synthesis. Aggressive Behavior, 31(2), 116–137. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20049

11.

Berkowitz

(1989). Frustration–aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation. Psychological Bulletin, 106(1), 59–73. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.59

12.

Blum

R. W.

Astone

N. M.

Decker

M. R.

Mouli

V. C.

(2014). A conceptual framework for early adolescence: A platform for research. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 26(3), 321–331. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijamh-2013-0327

13.

Boxer

Gullan

R. L.

Mahoney

(2009). Adolescents’ physical aggression toward parents in a clinic-referred sample. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology: The Official Journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53, 38(1), 106–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410802575396

14.

Calvete

Gamez–Guadix

Orue

Gonzalez–Diez

Lopez de Arroyabe

Sampedro

Pereira

Zubizarreta

Borrajo

(2013). Brief report: The adolescent child-to-parent aggression questionnaire: An examination of aggressions against parents in Spanish adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 36(6), 1077–1081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.08.017

15.

Calvete

Orue

Fernández–González

Chang

Little

T. D.

(2020). Longitudinal trajectories of child-to-parent violence through adolescence. Journal of Family Violence, 35(2), 107–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-019-00106-7

16.

Calvete

Orue

Gámez–Guadix

(2013). Child-to-parent violence: Emotional and behavioral predictors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(4), 755–772. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512455869

17.

Calvete

Orue

Sampedro

(2011). Violencia filio-parental en la adolescencia: características ambientales y personales [Child to parent violence in adolescence: environmental and individual characteristics]. Infancia Y Aprendizaje, 34(3), 349–363. https://doi.org/10.1174/021037011797238577

18.

Chang

(1997). Modernity through the family: Familial foundations of Korean society. International Review of Sociology, 7(1), 51–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/03906701.1997.9971221

19.

Charles

A. V.

(1986). Physically abused parents. Journal of Family Violence, 1(4), 343–355. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00978277

20.

Clarke

Holt

Norris

Ner

P. W.

(2017). Adolescent-to-parent violence and abuse: Parents’ management of tension and ambiguity–An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Child & Family Social Work, 22(4), 1423–1430. https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12363

21.

Conger

K. J.

Reuter

M. A.

Conger

R. D.

(2000). The role of economic pressure in the lives of parents and their adolescents: The family stress model. In Crockett

L. J.

Silbereisen

R. K.

(Eds.), Negotiating adolescence in times of social change (pp. 201–223). Cambridge University Press.

22.

Contreras

Cano

(2016). Child-to-parent violence: The role of exposure to violence and its relationship to social-cognitive processing. The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 8(2), 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpal.2016.03.003

23.

Coogan

Lauster

(2014). Nonviolent resistance handbook for practitioners–responding to child-to-parent violence in practice. RCPV Project/UNESCO Child and Family Research Centre.

24.

Cornell

C. P.

Gelles

R. J.

(1982). Adolescent-to-parent violence. The Urban and Social Change Review, 15(1), 8–14.

25.

Cottrell

(2001). Parent abuse: The abuse of parents by their teenage children. Health Canada.

26.

Cottrell

Monk

(2004). Adolescent-to-parent abuse: A qualitative overview of common themes. Journal of Family Issues, 25(8), 1072–1095. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X03261330

27.

Demkowicz

Panayiotou

Qualter

Humphrey

(2024). Longitudinal relationships across emotional distress, perceived emotion regulation, and social connections during early adolescence: A developmental cascades investigation. Development and Psychopathology, 36(2), 562–577. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579422001407

28.

Edenborough

Jackson

Mannix

Wilkes

L. M.

(2008). Living in the red zone: The experience of child-to-mother violence. Child & Family Social Work, 13(4), 464–473. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2206.2008.00576.x

29.

Enders

C. K.

(2010). Applied missing data analysis. Guilford Press.

30.

Eslea

Rees

(2001). At what age are children most likely to be bullied at school? Aggressive Behavior, 27(6), 419–429. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.1027

31.

Evans

C. B.

Smokowski

P. R.

(2015). Prosocial bystander behavior in bullying dynamics: Assessing the impact of social capital. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(12), 2289–2307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0338-5

32.

Fitz–Gibbon

Elliott

Maher

(2018). Investigating adolescent family violence in Victoria: Understanding experiences and practitioner perspectives. Monash Gender and Family Violence Research Program, Monash University.

33.

Flook

Fuligni

A. J.

(2008). Family and school spillover in adolescents’ daily lives. Child Development, 79(3), 776–787. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01157.x

34.

Fung

A. L. C.

Tsang

E. Y. H.

Zhou

Low

A. Y. T.

M. Y.

Lam

B. Y. H.

(2019). Relationship between peer victimization and reactive–proactive aggression in school children. Psychology of Violence, 9(3), 350–358. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000125

35.

Gallego

Novo

Fariña

Arce

(2019). Child-to-parent violence and parent-to-child violence: A meta-analytic review. The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 11(2), 51–59. https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2019a4

36.

Garrison

C. Z.

Jackson

K. L.

Marsteller

McKeown

R. E.

Addy

C. L.

(1990). A longitudinal study of depressive symptomatology in young adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 29(4), 581–585. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199007000-00011

37.

Conger

R. D.

Elder

G. H.

(2001). Pubertal transition, stressful life events, and the emergence of gender differences in adolescent depressive symptoms. Developmental Psychology, 37(3), 404–417. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.37.3.404

38.

González–Cabrera

Montiel

Machimbarrena

J. M.

Baridón–Chauvie

López–Carrasco

Ortega–Barón

(2022). Peer victimization and aggression based on adolescence stages: An exploratory study. Child Indicators Research, 15(6), 2155–2170. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12187-022-09950-4

39.

Gurdal

Sorbring

(2024). Cultural values, parenting and child adjustment in Sweden. International Journal of Psychology: Journal International de Psychologie, 59(4), 550–558. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.13103

40.

Hanson

M. D.

Chen

(2007). Socioeconomic status and health behaviors in adolescence: A review of the literature. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 30(3), 263–285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-007-9098-3

41.

Hardt

Rutter

(2004). Validity of adult retrospective reports of adverse childhood experiences: Review of the evidence. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 45(2), 260–273. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00218.x

42.

Harries

Curtis

Valpied

Baldwin

Hyder

Miller

(2023). Child-to-parent violence: Examining cumulative associations with corporal punishment and physical abuse. Journal of Family Violence, 38(7), 1317–1324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-022-00437-y

43.

Hoffmann

J. P.

(2006). Family structure, community context, and adolescent problem behaviors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35(6), 867–880. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9078-x

44.

Holt

(2016). Adolescent-to-parent abuse as a form of “domestic violence”: A conceptual review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17(5), 490–499. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015584372

45.

Hong

J. S.

Kral

M. J.

Espelage

D. L.

Allen–Meares

(2012). The social ecology of adolescent-initiated parent abuse: A review of the literature. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 43(3), 431–454. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-011-0273-y

46.

Hosmer

D. W.

Lemeshow

Sturdivant

R. X.

(2013). Applied logistic regression (3rd ed.). Wiley.

47.

Howard

Abbott

(2013). The last resort: Pathways to justice. Digital Reprographics.

48.

Ibabe

(2020). A systematic review of youth-to-parent aggression: Conceptualization, typologies, and instruments. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 577757. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.577757

49.

Ibabe

Arnoso

Elgorriaga

Asla

(2021). Evaluation report of early intervention program in the situation of child-to-parent abuse: Parents and children as participants. Journal of Family Studies, 29(1), 77–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/13229400.2021.1872404

50.

Ibabe

Bentler

P. M.

(2016). The contribution of family relationships to child-to-parent violence. Journal of Family Violence, 31(2), 259–269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-015-9764-0

51.

Ibabe

Jaureguizar

(2010). Child-to-parent violence: Profile of abusive adolescents and their families. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38(4), 616–624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.04.034

52.

Ibabe

Jaureguizar

Bentler

P. M.

(2013). Risk factors for child-to-parent violence. Journal of Family Violence, 28(5), 523–534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-013-9512-2

53.

Indrayan

Malhotra

R. K.

Pawar

(2024). Use of ROC curve analysis for prediction gives fallacious results: Use predictivity-based indices. Journal of Postgraduate Medicine, 70(2), 91–96. https://doi.org/10.4103/jpgm.jpgm_753_23

54.

Junco–Guerrero

Fernández–Baena

F. J.

Cantón–Cortés

(2025). Risk factors for child-to-parent violence: A scoping review. Journal of Family Violence, 40(1), 139–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-023-00621-8

55.

Kennedy

T. D.

Edmonds

W. A.

Dann

K. T. J.

Burnett

K. F.

(2010). The clinical and adaptive features of young offenders with histories of child-parent violence. Journal of Family Violence, 25(5), 509–520. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-010-9312-x

56.

Kethineni

(2004). Youth-on-parent violence in a central Illinois county. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 2(4), 374–394. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204004267785

57.

Kim

A. R.

Tak

Y. R.

(2017). The impact of family relationship, maltreatment, and peer violence victimization on adolescent bullying perpetration: The mediating roles of sense of community and internet/mobile phone addiction. Korean Journal of Child Studies, 38(6), 105–120. https://doi.org/10.5723/kjcs.2017.38.6.105

58.

Kim

Chung

(2017). The relationship between victimization and behavior in school violence of middle school students: The mediating effects of cognitive emotion regulation strategy and aggression. Korean Journal of Youth Studies, 24(7), 141–166. https://doi.org/10.21509/KJYS.2017.07.24.7.141

59.

Kim

Sung

Park

Han

(2018). The effects of child abuse on repetitive runaway behavior amongst adolescents: The mediating effects of depression. Studies on Korean Youth, 29(1), 239–263. https://doi.org/10.14816/sky.2018.29.1.239

60.

Kim

M. Y.

Lee

Kim

Y. A.

E. H.

K. J.

(2015). Secular changes in behavior problems of Korean youths based on the Korean-CBCL and -YSR. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 34(4), 769–793. https://doi.org/10.22257/kjp.2015.12.34.4.769

61.

Kline

R. B.

(2011). Methodology in the social sciences: Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford Press.

62.

Kofler

M. J.

McCart

M. R.

Zajac

Ruggiero

K. J.

Saunders

B. E.

Kilpatrick

D. G.

(2011). Depression and delinquency covariation in an accelerated longitudinal sample of adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(4), 458–469. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024108

63.

Korean Institute for Health and Social Affairs (KIHSA) . (2018). Korean national comprehensive survey on children. KIHSA.

64.

Korean Ministry of Gender Equality and Family. (KMGEF) . (2010). The national survey on domestic violence (2010). KMGEF.

65.

Lawrence

K. C.

Adebowale

T. A.

(2023). Adolescence dropout risk predictors: Family structure, mental health, and self-esteem. Journal of Community Psychology, 51(1), 120–136. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22884

66.

Lee

J. H.

(2021). Relationships between neighborhood collective efficacy and adolescent suicidal ideation. Journal of Adolescence, 93, 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.09.009

67.

Little

R. J. A.

(1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83(404), 1198–1202. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1988.10478722

68.

Loinaz

Barboni

Ma-de-Sousa

(2020). Gender differences in child-to-parent violence risk factors. Anales de Psicología, 36(3), 408–417. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.428531

69.

Loo

S. K.

Rapport

M. D.

(1998). Ethnic variations in children’s problem behaviors: A cross-sectional, developmental study of Hawaii school children. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 39(4), 567–575. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00352

70.

MacCallum

R. C.

Zhang

Preacher

K. J.

Rucker

D. D.

(2002). On the practice of dichotomization of quantitative variables. Psychological Methods, 7(1), 19–40. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989x.7.1.19

71.

Margolin

Baucom

B. R.

(2014). Adolescents’ aggression to parents: Longitudinal links with parents’ physical aggression. Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 55(5), 645–651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.05.008

72.

McKenna

O’Connor

Verco

(2010). Exposing the dark side of parenting: A report of parents’ experiences of child and adolescent family violence. The Regional Alliance Addressing Child and Adolescent Violence in the Home.

73.

McLaughlin

K. A.

King

(2015). Developmental trajectories of anxiety and depression in early adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(2), 311–323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9898-1

74.

Min

D. K.

(2013). The influence of parents’ child abuse, school violence and friends attachment on mental health in childhood. Journal of the Korean Data and Information Science Society, 25(2), 293–304. https://doi.org/10.7465/jkdi.2014.25.2.293

75.

Mistry

R. S.

Vandewater

E. A.

Huston

A. C.

McLoyd

V. C.

(2002). Economic well-being and children’s social adjustment: The role of family process in an ethnically diverse low-income sample. Child Development, 73(3), 935–951. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00448

76.

Moulds

L. G.

Day

Mildred

Miller

Casey

(2016). Adolescent violence towards parents – the known and unknowns. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 37(4), 547–557. https://doi.org/10.1002/anzf.1189

77.

Nansel

T. R.

Overpeck

Pilla

R. S.

Ruan

W. J.

Simons–Morton

Scheidt

(2001). Bullying behaviors among US youth: Prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285(16), 2094–2100. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.285.16.2094

78.

Nock

M. K.

Kazdin

A. E.

(2002). Parent-directed physical aggression by clinical-referred youths. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology: The Official Journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53, 31(2), 193–205. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP3102_05

79.

Noh

Kim

Yoo

(2006). Research on assessment of the effectiveness of school violence prevention programs. Samsung Social Mental Health Research Institution.

80.

Lee

Hong

(1997). Child and adolescent behavior assessment scale (K-CBCL). Central Aptitude Research Institute.

81.

Osborne

J. W.

Waters

(2002). Four assumptions of multiple regression that researchers should always test. Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation, 8(2), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.7275/r222-hv23

82.

Pagani

L. S.

Tremblay

R. E.

Nagin

Zoccolillo

Vitaro

McDuff

(2004). Risk factor models for adolescent verbal and physical aggression toward mothers. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28(6), 528–537. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250444000243

83.

Pagani

L. S.

Tremblay

R. E.

Nagin

Zoccolillo

Vitaro

McDuff

(2009). Risk factor models for adolescent verbal and physical aggression toward fathers. Journal of Family Violence, 24(3), 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-008-9216-1

84.

Park

Seo

Cho

Kang

(2021). Rasch analysis of the Korean-Child Behavior Checklist (K-CBCL) to assess emotional and behavioral problems in children with autism spectrum disorder. Sage Open, 11(2), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211040790

85.

Park

(2021). Does filial piety still matter? A filiality-based perspective on intergenerational solidarity and cooperation. Journal of Intergenerational Relationships, 19(1), 78–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/15350770.2021.1868232

86.

Park

(2019). Development of a parent–adolescent relationship scale self-report. Family and Culture, 31(4), 182–208. https://doi.org/10.21478/family.31.4.201912.007

87.

Paterson

Luntz

Perlesz

Cotton

(2002). Adolescent violence towards parents: Maintaining family connections when the going gets tough. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 23(2), 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1467-8438.2002.tb00493.x

88.

Paulson

M. J.

Coombs

R. H.

Landsverk

(1990). Youth who physically assault their parents. Journal of Family Violence, 5(2), 121–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00978515

89.

Peek

C. W.

Fischer

J. L.

Kidwell

J. S.

(1985). Teenage violence toward parents: A neglected dimension of family violence. Journal of Marriage and Family, 47(4), 1051–1058. https://doi.org/10.2307/352350

90.

Ren

Wang

Liang

Wang

(2023). Bidirectional relationship between bullying victimization and functions of aggression in adolescents: The mediating effect of teacher justice. Journal of Adolescence, 95(6), 1245–1257. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12198

91.

Rohner

R. P.

Pettengill

S. M.

(1985). Perceived parental acceptance-rejection and parental control among Korean adolescents. Child Development, 56(2), 524–528. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129739

92.

Routt

Anderson

(2011). Adolescent violence towards parents. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 20(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2011.537595

93.

Simmons

McEwan

T. E.

Purcell

Ogloff

J. R. P.

(2018). Sixty years of child-to-parent abuse research: What we know and where to go. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 38, 31–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.11.001

94.

Simmons

M. L.

McEwan

T. E.

Purcell

Huynh

(2019). The Abusive Behaviour by Children–Indices (ABC-I): A measure to discriminate between normative and abusive child behaviour. Journal of Family Violence, 34(7), 663–676. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-019-00071-1

95.

Smirnov

N. V.

(1948). Table for estimating the goodness of fit of empirical distributions. The Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 19(2), 279–281. https://doi.org/10.1214/aoms/1177730256

96.

Statistics Korea . (2018). Household income trends in the fourth quarter of 2018. https://kostat.go.kr/board.es?act=view&bid=214&list_no=374359&mid=a10301040400

97.

Statistics Korea . (2025). National educational attainment: Population distribution by educational level. https://www.index.go.kr/unity/potal/main/EachDtlPageDetail.do?idx_cd=1530

98.

Steinberg

(2005). Cognitive and affective development in adolescence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(2), 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.005

99.

Straus

M. A.

(1979). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) scales. Journal of Marriage and Family, 41(1), 75–88. https://doi.org/10.2307/351733

100.

Straus

M. A.

Hamby

S. L.

Finkelhor

Moore

Runyan

(1998). Identification of child maltreatment with the parent–child conflict tactics scales: Development and psychometric data for a national sample of American parents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22(4), 249–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0145-2134(97)00174-9

101.

Sullivan

T. N.

Farrell

A. D.

Kliewer

(2006). Peer victimization in early adolescence: Association between physical and relational victimization and drug use, aggression, and delinquent behaviors among urban middle school students. Development and Psychopathology, 18(1), 119–137. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457940606007X

102.

Ulman

Straus

M. A.

(2003). Violence by children against mothers in relation to violence between parents and corporal punishment by parents. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 34(1), 41–60. https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.34.1.41

103.

Valois

R. F.

MacDonald

J. M.

Bretous

Fischer

M. A.

Drane

J. W.

(2002). Risk factors and behaviors associated with adolescent violence and aggression. American Journal of Health Behavior, 26(6), 454–464. https://doi.org/10.5993/ajhb.26.6.6

104.

Van Oort

F. V. A.

Greaves–Lord

Verhulst

F. C.

Ormel

Huizink

A. C.

(2009). The developmental course of anxiety symptoms during adolescence: The TRAILS study. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 50(10), 1209–1217. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02092.x

105.

Walsh

J. A.

Krienert

J. L.

(2007). Child–parent violence: An empirical analysis of offender, victim, and event characteristics in a national sample of reported incidents. Journal of Family Violence, 22(7), 563–574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-007-9108-9

106.

Williams

A. H.

(1978). Depression, deviation and acting out in adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 1(4), 309–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-1971(78)80034-7

107.

Wolff

J. C.

Ollendick

T. H.

(2006). The comorbidity of conduct problems and depression in childhood and adolescence. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 9(3–4), 201–220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-006-0011-3

108.

Xie

Wen

Zhou

Huang

(2024). Association of child maltreatment and school bullying among Chinese adolescents: The mediating role of peer relationships. BMC Public Health, 24(1), 2550. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-20082-y

109.

Yoshikawa

Aber

J. L.

Beardslee

W. R.

(2012). The effects of poverty on the mental, emotional, and behavioral health of children and youth: Implications for prevention. The American Psychologist, 67(4), 272–284. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028015