Youth referred to mentoring programs vary considerably in the range and severity of difficulties (i.e., behavioral, internalizing, social and academic) and environmental challenges they face. However, their patterns of risk and corresponding consequences for mentoring have rarely been investigated. This study draws on data for youth participants in 30 mentoring programs (n = 2,165, 55.1% females) to examine patterns of presenting challenges. Four profiles emerged using three-step latent profile analyses. Profiles with more intensive symptoms were associated with more environmental stressors. Moreover, there were significant differences between profiles in youth-perceived relationship attributes, including closeness, youth-centeredness, growth focus and mentor-mentee relational health. The profile with the highest externalizing and social challenge indicators scored the lowest across these four relational indices. The results highlight variability of youth risk at baseline, and its differential impact on mentoring relationship outcomes. Implications for mentoring programs are discussed.
AbadJ.FornsM.GómezJ. (2002). Emotional and behavioral problems as measured by the YSR: gender and age differences in Spanish adolescents. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 18(2), 149.
2.
AngoldA.CostelloE. J.MesserS. C.PicklesA.WinderF.SilverD. (1995). The development of a short questionnaire for use in epidemiological studies of depression in children and adolescents. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 5, 237–249.
3.
AsparouhovT.MuthénB. (2014). Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: three-step approaches using Mplus. Structural Equation Modeling, 21(3), 329–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.915181
4.
BarkerE. D.OliverB. R.MaughanB. (2010). Co-occurring problems of early onset persistent, childhood limited, and adolescent onset conduct problem youth. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(11), 1217–1226. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02240.x
5.
BayerA.GrossmanJ. B.DuBoisD. L. (2015). Using volunteer mentors to improve the academic outcomes of underserved students: the role of relationships. Journal of Community Psychology, 43(4), 408–429. Http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21693
6.
BennerG. J.KutashK.NelsonJ. R.FisherM. B. (2013). Closing the achievement gap of youth with emotional and behavioral disorders through multi-tiered systems of support. Education and Treatment of Children, 36(3), 15–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/etc.2013.0018
7.
BerlinK. S.WilliamsN. A.ParraG. R. (2014). An introduction to latent variable mixture modeling (Part 1): overview and cross-sectional latent class and latent profile analyses. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 39(2), 174–187. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jst084
8.
BonadioF. T.DynesM.LackeyJ.TompsettC.AmrheinK. (2016). Grouping youth with similar symptoms: a person-centered approach to transdiagnostic subgroups. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 72(7), 676–688. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22274
9.
BonadioF. T.TompsettC. (2018). Who benefits from community mental health care? Using latent profile analysis to identify differential treatment outcomes for youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(11), 2320–2336. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0888-4
CoieJ. D.WattN. F.WestS. G.HawkinsJ. D.AsarnowJ. R.MarkmanH. J.RameyS. L.ShureM. B.LongB. (1993). The science of prevention: a conceptual framework and some directions for a national research program. American Psychologist, 49(12), 1087–1088. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.49.12.1087
12.
DanseyD.ShberoD.JohnM. (2019). Keeping secrets: how children in foster care manage stigma. Adoption & Fostering, 43(1), 35–45.
13.
Deater–DeckardK.DodgeK. A.BatesJ. E.PettitG. S. (1998). Multiple risk factors in the development of externalizing behavior problems: group and individual differences. Development and Psychopathology, 10(3), 469–493.
14.
DuBoisD. L.HollowayB. E.ValentineJ. C.CooperH. (2002). Effectiveness of mentoring programs for youth: a meta-analytic review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(2), 157–197. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1014628810714
15.
DuBoisD. L.KarcherM. J. (2015). Youth mentoring: theory, research, and practice. In DuBoisD. L.KarcherM. J. (Eds.), Handbook of youth mentoring (2nd ed., pp. 2–12). SAGE Publications, Inc. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412976664.n1
16.
DuBoisD.L.KellerT.E. (2017). Investigation of the integration of supports for youth thriving into a community-based mentoring program. Child Development, 88, 5, 1480–1491. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12887
17.
DuBoisD. L.PortilloN.RhodesJ. E.SilverthornN.ValentineJ. C. (2011). How effective are mentoring programs for youth? A systematic assessment of the e vidence. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 12(2), 57–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1529100611414806
18.
GarlandA. F.LandsverkJ. A.LauA. S. (2003). Racial/ethnic disparities in mental health service use among children in foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 25, 491–507.
GriffinR. S.GrossA. M. (2004). Childhood bullying: current empirical findings and future directions for research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 9(4), 379–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1359-1789(03)00033-8
21.
GrossmanJ. B.ChanC. S.SchwartzS. E. O.RhodesJ. E. (2012). The test of time in school-based mentoring: the role of relationship duration and re-matching on academic outcomes. American Journal of Community Psychology, 49(1–2), 43–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10464-011-9435-0
22.
GrossmanJ. B.RhodesJ. E. (2002). The test of time: predictors and effects of duration in youth mentoring relationships. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(2), 199–219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1014680827552
23.
HerreraC.DuBoisD. L.GrossmanJ. B. (2013). The Role of Risk: Mentoring experiences and outcomes for youth with varying risk profiles. Mdrc. http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED544233
24.
HerreraC.GrossmanJ. B.KauhT. J.McMakenJ. (2011). Mentoring in Schools: an Impact Study of Big Brothers Big Sisters School-Based Mentoring. Child Development, 82(1), 346–361. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01559.x
25.
JarjouraG. R.TanyuM.HerreraC.KellerT. E. (2018). Evaluation of the mentoring enhancement demonstration program: Technical report. Washington, DC.
26.
JucovyL. (2002). Measuring the quality of mentor-youth relationships: A tool for mentoring programs. : Public/Private Ventures.
27.
KarcherM. J.DavisC.PowellB. (2002). The effects of developmental mentoring on connectedness and academic achievement. The School Community Journal, 12(2), 35–50.
28.
KellerT. E. (2005). A systemic model of the youth mentoring intervention. Journal of Primary Prevention, 26(2), 169–188.
29.
KingK. A.VidourekR. A.DavisB.McClellanW. (2002). Increasing self-esteem and school connectedness through a multidimensional mentoring program. Journal of School Health, 72(7), 294–299. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2002.tb01336.x
30.
KupersmidtJ. B.StumpK. N.StelterR. L.RhodesJ. E. (2017). Predictors of premature match closure in youth mentoring relationships. American Journal of Community Psychology, 59(1–2), 25–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12124
31.
LaheyB. B.Schwab-StoneM.GoodmanS. H.WaldmanI. D.CaninoG.RathouzP. J.MillerT. L.DennisK. D.BirdH.JensenP. S. (2000). Age and gender differences in oppositional behavior and conduct problems: a cross-sectional household study of middle childhood and adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(3), 488–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.109.3.488
32.
LanzaS. T.RhoadesB. L. (2013). Latent class analysis: an alternative perspective on subgroup analysis in prevention and treatment. Prevention Science, 14(2), 157–168. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11121-011-0201-1
33.
LiangB.TracyA. J.KennyM. E.BroganD.GathaR. (2010). The relational health indices for youth: an examination of reliability and validity aspects. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 42(4), 255–274.
34.
LiaoC. L.SánchezB. (2019). Mentoring relationship quality profiles and their association with urban, low-income youth’s academic outcomes. Youth & Society, 51(4), 443-462.
35.
LubkeG. H.MuthénB. (2005). Investigating population heterogeneity with factor mixture models. Psychological Methods, 10(1), 21–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.10.1.21
36.
MarchetteL. K.WeiszJ. R. (2017). Practitioner review: empirical evolution of youth psychotherapy toward transdiagnostic approaches. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(9), 970–984.
37.
MarmotM.WilkinsonR. (Eds.). (2005). Social determinants of health. Oxford.
38.
McQuillinS. D.LyonsM. D. (2016). Brief instrumental school-based mentoring for middle school students: theory and impact. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 9(2), 73–89.
39.
MellorD. (2005) Normative Data for the strengths and difficulties questionnaire in Australia. Australian Psychologist, 40, 215–222.
MoilanenK.L.ShawD.S.MaxwellK.L. (2010). Developmental cascades: externalizing, internalizing, and academic competence from middle childhood to early adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 635–653.
42.
Monjaras-GaytanL. Y.SánchezB.Smith CarterJ. (2020). Developing natural mentoring relationships among latinx youth: the roles of trust in adults and stressors. Applied Developmental Science,1–12. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1080/10888691.2020.1768095
43.
NatarajanG.SomasundaramC. P.SundaramK. R. (2011). Relationship between attachment security and rejection sensitivity in early adolescence. Psychological Studies, 56(4), 378–386.
44.
National Center for Education. (2012). The condition of education 2012. Retrieved from National Center for Education, 2012
45.
NylundK. L.AsparouhovT.MuthénB. O. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: a Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(4), 535–569. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10705510701575396
46.
PachterL. M.AuingerP.PalmerR.WeitzmanM. (2006). Do parenting and the home environment, maternal depression, neighborhood, and chronic poverty affect child behavioral problems differently in different racial-ethnic groups?Pediatrics, 117(4), 1329–1338. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-1784
47.
PryceJ. (2012). Mentor attunement: an approach to successful school-based mentoring relationships. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 29(4), 285–305. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-012-0260-6
48.
RaposaE. B.DietzN.RhodesJ. E. (2017). Trends in volunteer mentoring in the United States: analysis of a decade of census survey data. American Journal of Community Psychology, 59(1–2), 3–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12117
49.
RaposaE. B.RhodesJ. E.HerreraC. (2016). The impact of youth risk on mentoring relationship quality: do mentor characteristics matter?American Journal of Community Psychology, 57(3–4), 320–329. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12057
50.
RaposaE. B.RhodesJ.StamsG. J. J. M.CardN.BurtonS.SchwartzS.SykesL. A. Y.KanchewaS.KupersmidtJ.HussainS. (2019). The effects of youth mentoring programs: a meta-analysis of outcome studies. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(3), 423–443.
51.
RutterM. (1980). Changing youth in a changing society. Harvard University Press.
52.
SalkR. H.HydeJ. S.AbramsonL. Y. (2017). Gender differences in depression in representative national samples: meta-analyses of diagnoses and symptoms. Psychological Bulletin, 143(8), 783–822. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000102
53.
SanderJ. B.McCartyC. A. (2005). Youth depression in the family context: familial risk factors and models of treatment. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8(3), 203–219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10567-005-6666-3
SchwartzS. E. O.RhodesJ. E.ChanC. S.HerreraC. (2011). The impact of school-based mentoring on youths with different relational profiles. Developmental Psychology, 47(2), 450–462.
56.
ScruggsT. E.MastropieriM. A. (1986). Academic characteristics of behaviorally disordered and learning disabled students. Behavioral Disorders, 11(3), 184–190. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019874298601100309
57.
ShlaferR. J.PoehlmannJ.CoffinoB.HannemanA. (2009). Mentoring children with incarcerated parents: implications for research, practice, and policy. Family Relations, 58(5), 507–519.
58.
SpencerR. (2006). Understanding the mentoring process between adolescents and adults. Youth & Society, 37(3), 287–315.
59.
SpencerR.Basualdo-DelmonicoA.LewisT. O. (2011). Working to make it work: the role of parents in the youth mentoring process. Journal of Community Psychology, 39(1), 51–59.
60.
SpencerR.Basualdo-DelmonicoA.WalshJ.DrewA. L. (2017). Breaking up is hard to do; a qualitative interview study of how and why youth mentoring relationships end. Youth and Society, 49(4), 438–460. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0044118X14535416
61.
SpencerR.GowdyG.DrewA. L.McCormackM. J.KellerT. E. (2020). It takes a village to break up a match: a systemic analysis of formal youth mentoring relationship endings. Child & Youth Care Forum, 49(1), 97–120.
62.
SpiltJ. L.KootJ. M.van LierP. A. C. (2013). For whom does it work? Subgroup differences in the effects of a school-based universal prevention program. Prevention Science, 14(5), 479–488. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11121-012-0329-7
63.
TolanP. H.HenryD. B.SchoenyM. S.LovegroveP.NicholsE. (2014). Mentoring programs to affect delinquency and associated outcomes of youth at risk: a comprehensive meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10(2), 179–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11292-013-9181-4
64.
TuckerJ. S.EllicksonP. L.OrlandoM.MartinoS. C.KleinD. J. (2005). Substance use trajectories from early adolescence to emerging adulthood: a comparison of smoking, binge drinking, and marijuana use. Journal of Drug Issues, 35(2), 307–332.
65.
ValdezC. R.LambertS. F.IalongoN. S. (2011). Identifying patterns of early risk for mental health and academic problems in adolescence: a longitudinal study of urban youth. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 42(5), 521–538. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10578-011-0230-9
66.
VargaS. M.DeutschN. L. (2016). Revealing both sides of the story: a comparative analysis of mentors and protégés relational perspectives. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 37(5), 449–465.
67.
VázquezA. L.VillodasM. T. (2019). Racial/ethnic differences in caregivers’ perceptions of the need for and utilization of adolescent psychological counseling and support services. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000255
68.
WadeT. J.CairneyJ.PevalinD. J. (2002). Emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence: national panel results from three countries. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(2), 190–198. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200202000-00013
69.
Weiston-SerdanT. (2017). Critical mentoring: A practical guide.Stylus Publishing, LLC.
70.
WiesnerM.KimH. K. (2006). Co-occurring delinquency and depressive symptoms of adolescent boys and girls: a dual trajectory modeling approach. Developmental Psychology, 42(6), 1220–1235. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.6.1220
71.
ZilbersteinK.SpencerR. (2017). Breaking bad: an attachment perspective on youth mentoring relationship closures. Child & Family Social Work, 22(1), 67–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12197
72.
ZimmermannP.IwanskiA. (2014). Emotion regulation from early adolescence to emerging adulthood and middle adulthood: age differences, gender differences, and emotion-specific developmental variations. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38(2), 182–194. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025413515405
