Consideration of the role of gender in alcohol, tobacco, and drug use, for the most part, has been omitted from studies of intervention effectiveness. Consequently, although scientists now can state with confidence that effective prevention approaches exist, it is not clear whether those programs are effective specifically for girls. Consequently, although great strides have been made in identifying substance use patterns, precursors to use, and effective prevention strategies in general, many questions remain about the ways in which those prevention efforts might address better the needs of differing gender and racial/ethnic groups. The primary goal for this report was first to review evidence of the effectiveness of traditional alcohol, tobacco, and drug use prevention approaches with girls and with boys, as well as available evidence from gender-specific or genderinformed interventions focused specifically on girls, and second, to make recommendations regarding needed research and prevention strategies that take gender into account.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Amaro, H.
, Blake, S. M., Schwartz, P. M., & Flinchbaugh, L. J. (2001). Developing theory-based substance abuse prevention programs for young adolescent girls. Journal of Early Adolescence, 21, 256-293.
2.
Ary, D.
, Biglan, A., Glasgow, R., Zoref, L., Black, C., Ochs, L., Severson, H., Kelly, R., Weissman, W., Lichtenstien, E., Brozovsky, P., Wirt, R., & James, L. (1990) The efficacy of social influence prevention programs versus “standard care”: Are new initiatives needed?Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 13, 281-296.
3.
Best, J. A.
, Brown, K. S., Cameron, R., Manske, S. M., & Santi, S. (1995). Gender and predisposing attributes as predictors of smoking onset: Implications for theory and practice. Journal of Health Education, 26(Suppl. 2), 52-60.
4.
Blumenthal, S. J.
(1998). Women and substance abuse: A new national focus. In C. L. Wetherington, & A. B. Roman (Eds.), Drug addiction research and the health of women(NIDA Publication No. 98-4289, pp. 13-32). Washington, DC: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
5.
Botvin, G. J.
, Baker, E., Filazzola, A. D., & Botvin, E. M. (1990). A cognitive behavioral approach to substance abuse prevention: One-year follow-up. Addictive Behaviors, 15, 47-63.
6.
Brown, L. M.
, & Gilligan, C. (1992). Meeting at the crossroads: Women’s psychology and girls’ development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
7.
Bruvold, W. H.
(1993). A meta-analysis of adolescent smoking prevention programs. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 872-880.
8.
Cheadle, A.
, Pearson, D., Wagner, E., Psaty, B. M., Diehr, P., & Kepsell, T. (1995). A community-based approach to preventing alcohol use among adolescents on an American Indian reservation. Public Health Reports, 11, 437-447.
9.
Davis, S. M.
, Lambert, L. C., Gomez, Y., & Skipper, B. (1995). Southwest cardiovascular curriculum for fifth grade American Indian children. Journal of Health Education, 26(Suppl.), 72-81.
10.
Dielman, T. E.
(1994). School-based research on the prevention of adolescent alcohol use and misuse: Methodological issues and advances. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4, 271-293.
11.
Dishion, T.
, & Andrews, D. (1995). Preventing escalation in problem behaviors with high-risk adolescents: Immediate and 1-year outcomes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 538-548.
12.
Dishion, T. J.
, McCord, J., & Poulin, F. (1999). When interventions harm: Peer groups and problem behavior. American Psychologist, 54, 755-764.
13.
Donaldson, S.
, Graham, J., Piccinin, A., & Hansen, W. (1995). Resistance training and onset of alcohol use: Evidence for beneficial and potentially harmful effects in public schools and in private Catholic schools. Health Psychology, 14, 291-300.
14.
Dryfoos, J. G.
(1990). Adolescents at risk: Prevalence and prevention. New York: Oxford University Press.
15.
Eiser, C.
, & Eiser, R. (1987). Implementing a “life-skills” approach to drug education: a preliminary evaluation. Health Education Research, 2, 319-327.
16.
Elder, J.
, Wildey, M., de Moor, C., Sallis, J., Eckhardt, L., Edwards, C., Erickson, A., Golbeck, A., Hovell, M., Johnston, D., Levitz, M., Molgaard, C., Young, R., Vito, D., & Woodruff, S. (1993) The long term prevention of tobacco use among junior high school students: Classroom and telephone interventions. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 1239-1244.
17.
Elias, M. J.
, Gara, M. A., Schuyler, T. F., Branden-Muller, L. R., & Sayette, M. A. (1991). The promotion of social competence: Longitudinal study of a preventive school-based program. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61, 409-417.
18.
Finnegan, L. P.
(1998). Drug addiction research and the health of women. In C. L. Wetherington & A. B. Roman (Eds.), Drug addiction research and the health of women (NIDA Publication No. 98-4289, pp. 1-4). Washington, DC: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
19.
Flay, B.
(1985). Psychosocial approaches to smoking prevention: A review of findings. Health Psychology, 4, 449-488.
20.
Flynn, B. S.
, Worden, J. K., Secker-Walker, R. H., Badger, G. J., & Geller, B. M. (1995). Cigarette smoking prevention effects of mass media and school interventions targeted to gender and age groups. Journal of Health Education, 26(Suppl. 2), 45-61.
21.
Graham, J.
, Johnson, A., Hansen, W., Flay, B., & Gee, M. (1990). Drug use prevention programs, gender and ethnicity: Evaluation of three seventh-grade Project SMART cohorts. Preventive Medicine, 19, 305-313.
22.
Hafstad, A.
, Aaro, L. E., Engeland, A., Andersen, A. A., Langmark, F., & Stray-Pedersen, B. (1997). Provocative appeals in anti-smoking mass media campaigns targeting adolescents— the accumulated effect of multiple exposures. Health Education Research, 12, 227-236.
23.
Hansen, W.
(1993). School based alcohol prevention programs. Alcohol Health and Research World, 17, 54-60.
24.
Hansen, W.
(1994). Prevention of alcohol use and abuse. Preventive Medicine, 23, 683-687.
25.
Hansen, W.
(1997). Prevention programs: Factors that individually focused programs must address. In Secretary’s youth substance abuse prevention initiative: Resource papers (pp. 53-66). Rockville, MD: Center for Substance Abuse Prevention, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
26.
Hermann, D.
, & McWhirter, J. (1997). Refusal and resistance skills for children and adolescents: A selected review. Journal of Counseling and Development, 76, 177-187.
27.
Horan, J.
, & Williams, J. (1982). Longitudinal study of assertion training as a drug abuse prevention strategy. American Educational Research Journal, 19, 341-351.
28.
Johnson, C. A.
, Penz, M., Weber, M. D., Dwyer, J. H., Baer, N., MacKinnon, D. P., & Hansen, W. B. (1990). Relative effectiveness of comprehensive community programming for drug abuse prevention with high-risk and low-risk adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 447-456.
29.
Jordan, J.
, Kaplan, A., Miller, J. B., Stiver, I., & Surrey, J. (1991). Women’s growth in connection. New York: Guilford.
30.
Kandall, S. R.
(1998a). Women and addiction in the United States—1850-1920. In C. L. Wetherington & A. B. Roman (Eds.), Drug addiction research and the health of women(NIDA Publication No. 98-4289, pp. 33-52). Washington, DC: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
31.
Kandall, S. R.
(1998b). Women and addiction in the United States—1920-Present. In C. L. Wetherington & A. B. Roman (Eds.), Drug addiction research and the health of women(NIDA Publication No. 98-4289, pp. 53-80). Washington, DC: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
32.
Kelder, S. H.
, Perry, C. L., Peters, R. L., Jr., Lytle, L. L., & Klepp, K. I. (1995). Gender differences in the Class of 1989 Study: The school component of the Minnesota Heart Health Program. Journal of Health Education, 26, 36-44.
33.
Kumpfer, K. L.
, Molgaard, V., & Spoth, R. (1996). The Strengthening Families Program for the prevention of delinquency and drug use. In R. Peters & R. McMaon (Eds.), Preventing childhood problems, substance abuse, and delinquency (pp. 241-267). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
34.
Leadbeater, B.
, & Way, N. (1996). Urban Girls: Resisting stereotypes, creating identities.New York: New York University Press.
35.
Mactas, D. J.
(1998). Treatment of women with substance abuse problems. In C. L. Wetherington & A. B. Roman (Eds.), Drug addiction research and the health of women (NIDA Publication No. 98-4289, pp. 565-572). Washington, DC: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
36.
Marlatt, G. A.
, Baer, J. S., Kivlahan, D. R., Dimeff, L. A., Larimer, M. E., Quigley, L. A., Somers, J. M., & Williams, E. (1998). Screening and brief intervention for high-risk college student drinkers results from a 2-year follow-up assessment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 604-615.
37.
McCaul, K.
, & Glasgow, R. (1985). Preventing adolescent smoking: What have we learned about treatment construct validity?Health Psychology, 4, 361-387.
38.
Miller, J. B.
(1986). Toward a new psychology of women. Boston: Beacon. (Original work published 1976).
39.
Millstein, R. A.
(1998). Research directions and opportunities. In C. L. Wetherington & A. B. Roman (Eds.), Drug addiction research and the health of women (NIDA Publication No. 98- 4289, pp. 573-581). Washington, DC: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
40.
Moskowitz, J.
, Schaps, E., Schaeffer, G., & Malvin, J. (1984). Evaluation of a substance abuse prevention program for junior high school students. International Journal of the Addictions, 19, 419-430.
41.
National Institute on Drug Abuse
. (1997). Preventing drug use among children and adolescents: A research based guide (NIH Publication No. 99-4212). Bethesda, MD: Author.
42.
O’Donnell, J.
, Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Abbott, R. D., & Day, L. E. (1995). Preventing school failure, drug use, and delinquency among low-income children: Long-term intervention in elementary schools. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65, 87-100.
43.
Paglia, A.
, & Room, R. (1999). Preventing substance use problems among youth: A literature review and recommendations. Journal of Primary Prevention, 20, 3-50.
44.
Palinkas, L. A.
, Atkins, C. J., Miller, C., & Ferreira, D. (1996). Social skills training for drug prevention in high-risk female adolescents. Preventive Medicine: An International Journal Devoted to Practice & Theory, 25, 692-701.
45.
Perry, C. L.
, Williams, C. L., Veblen-Mortenson, S., Toomey, T. L., Komro, K. A., Anstine, P. S., McGovern, P. G., Finnegan, J. R., Forster, J. L., Wagenaar, A. C., & Wolfson, M. (1996). Project Northland: Outcomes of a community-wide alcohol use prevention program during early adolescence. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 956-965.
46.
Petraitis, J.
, Flay, B., & Miller, T. (1995). Reviewing theories of adolescent substance use: Organizing pieces in the puzzle. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 67-86.
47.
Pilgrim, C.
, Abbey, A., Hendrickson, P., & Lorenz, S. (1998). Implementation and impact of a family based substance abuse prevention program in rural communities. Journal of Primary Prevention, 18, 341-361.
48.
Pinn, V. W.
(1998). Role of the Office of Research on Women’s Health. In C. L. Wetherington & A. B. Roman (Eds.), Drug addiction research and the health of women (NIDA Publication No. 98-4289, pp. 5-12). Washington, DC: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
49.
Pipher, M.
(1994). Reviving Ophelia: Saving the selves of adolescent girls. New York: G. P. Putnam.
50.
Polansky, J. M.
, Buki, L. P., Horan, J. J., Ceperich, S. D., & Burrows, D. D. (1999). The effectiveness of substance abuse prevention videotapes with Mexican American adolescents. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 21, 186-198.
51.
Reed, B. G.
(1987). Developing women-sensitive drug dependency treatment services. Why so difficult?Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 19, 179-201.
52.
Sambrano, S.
, Springer, J., & Hermann, J. (1997). Informing the next generation of prevention programs: CSAP’s cross site evaluation of the 1994-1995 high-risk youth grantees. Journal of Community Psychology, 25, 375-395.
53.
Santi, S.
, Cargo, M., Brown, S., Best, J., & Cameron, R. (1994). Dispositional risk factors for smoking-stage transitions: A social influences program as an effect modifier. Addictive Behaviors, 19, 269-285.
54.
Severson, H. H.
, Glasgow, R., Wirt, R., Brozovsky, P., Zoref, L., Black, C., Biglan, A., Ary, D., & Weissman, W. (1991). Preventing the use of smokeless tobacco and cigarettes by teens: Results of a classroom intervention. Health Education Research, 6, 109-120.
55.
Shope, J. T.
, Dielman, T. E., Butchart, A. T., Campanelli, P. C., & Kloska, D. (1992). An elementary school based alcohol misuse prevention program: A follow-up evaluation. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 53, 106-121.
56.
Shumaker, S.
, & Hill, R. (1991). Gender differences in social support and physical health. Health Psychology, 10, 102-111.
57.
Snow, D.
, Tebes, J., & Ayers, T. (1997). Impact of two social cognitive interventions to prevent adolescent substance use: Test of amenability to treatment model. Journal of Drug Education, 27, 1-17.
58.
Stone, E. J.
, Baronowski, T., Sallis, J. F., & Cutler, J. A. (1995). Review of behavioral research for cardiopulmonary health: Emphasis on youth, gender, and ethnicity. Journal of Health Education, 26, 9-17.
59.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Substance Abuse Prevention
. (2000). Prevention works through community partnerships: Findings from SAMHSA/CSAP’s national evaluation (DHHS Publication No. SMA 00-3373). Rockville, MD: Author.
60.
Sussman, S.
, Dent, C. W., Stacey, A. W., Sun, P., Craig, S., Simon, T. R., Burton, D., & Flay, B. (1993). Project towards no tobacco use: One-year behavioral outcomes. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 1245-1250.
61.
Sussman, S.
, Lichtman, K., Ritt, A., & Pallonen, U. (1999). Effects of thirty-four adolescent tobacco use cessation and prevention trials on regular users of tobacco products. Substance Use and Misuse, 34, 1469-1503.
62.
Thrush, D.
, Fife-Schaw, C., & Breakwell, G. (1999). Evaluation of interventions to reduce smoking. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 58, 85-100.
63.
Tobler, N.
, & Stratton, H. (1997). Effectiveness of school based drug prevention programs: A meta-analysis of the research. Journal of Primary Prevention, 18, 71-128.
64.
Vartiainen, E.
, Paavola, M., McAlister, A., & Puska, P. (1998). Fifteen year follow up of smoking prevention effects in the North Karelia Youth Project. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 81-85.
65.
Vitaro, F.
, & Dobkin, P. (1996). Prevention with substance use/abuse in early adolescents with behavior problems. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 41, 11-38.
66.
Vitaro, F.
, Dobkin, P. L., & Tremblay, R. E. (1994). Programme de prevention des toxicomanies en milieu scolaire [A school-based program for the prevention of substance abuse]. International Journal of Psychology, 29, 431-452.
67.
Wagner, E.
, Brown, S., Monti, P., Myers, M., & Waldron, H. (1999). Innovations in adolescent substance abuse interventions. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 23, 236-249.
68.
Walker, Z.
, & Townsend, J. (1999). The role of general practice in promoting teenage health: A review of the literature. Family Practice, 16, 164-172.
69.
Weiss, F.
, & Nicholson, H. (1998). Friendly PEERsuasion against substance use: The girls incorporated model and evaluation. Drugs and Society, 12(1/2), 7-22.
70.
Williams, C.
, Perry, C., Dudovitz, B., Veblen-Mortenson, S., Anstine, P. S., Komro, K. A., & Toomey, T. L. (1995). A home based prevention program for sixth grade alcohol use: Results from Project Northland. Journal of Primary Prevention, 16, 125-147.
71.
Worden, J. K.
, Flynn, B. S., Solomon, L. J., & Secker-Walker, R. H. (1996). Using mass media to prevent cigarette smoking among adolescent girls. Health Education Quarterly, 23, 453-468.
