Microglia are the resident macrophage in the central nervous system (CNS) and are essential for maintaining homeostatic functions of the CNS. During development, the proliferation, and colonization of yolk sac-derived progenitors in the CNS are precisely regulated by a specific set of genes. Microglia also play a crucial role in CNS diseases. Microglia adopt distinct profiles to perform differential functions in various diseases. In this review, we summarize the molecular programs that govern microglial development from embryonic colonization to postnatal maturation, and highlight how these regulatory mechanisms shape microglial identity and function. We further discuss how microglia undergo profound profile transitions in cerebral disorders, especially during ischemic stroke. Together, these insights gained from recent studies highlight the need for a better understanding of the precise cell types and their stage-specific mechanism in the revolution of the immune landscape at different stages of stroke pathology. This knowledge will be valuable to design specific therapeutic strategies to reduce acute and secondary neuronal damage without further exacerbating stroke-induced immune suppression (SIIS).
SierraAde CastroFDel Rio-HortegaJ, et al. The “Big-Bang” for modern glial biology: translation and comments on Pio del Rio-Hortega 1919 series of papers on microglia. Glia2016; 64(11): 1801–1840.
2.
CuadrosMANavascuesJ.The origin and differentiation of microglial cells during development. Prog Neurobiol1998; 56(2): 173–189.
3.
HessDCAbeTHillWD, et al. Hematopoietic origin of microglial and perivascular cells in brain. Exp Neurol2004; 186(2): 134–144.
4.
de AlmeidaMMAGoodkeyKVoronovaA.Regulation of microglia function by neural stem cells. Front Cell Neurosci2023; 17: 1130205.
5.
KierdorfKErnyDGoldmannT, et al. Microglia emerge from erythromyeloid precursors via Pu.1- and Irf8-dependent pathways. Nat Neurosci2013; 16(3): 273–280.
6.
GinhouxFGreterMLeboeufM, et al. Fate mapping analysis reveals that adult microglia derive from primitive macrophages. Science2010; 330(6005): 841–845.
7.
SchulzCGomez PerdigueroEChorroL, et al. A lineage of myeloid cells independent of Myb and hematopoietic stem cells. Science2012; 336(6077): 86–90.
8.
ChenHRSunYYChenCW, et al. Fate mapping via CCR2–CreER mice reveals monocyte-to-microglia transition in development and neonatal stroke. Sci Adv2020; 6(35): eabb2119.
9.
BastosJO’BrienCVara-PerezM, et al. Monocytes can efficiently replace all brain macrophages and fetal liver monocytes can generate bona fide SALL1(+) microglia. Immunity2025; 58(5): 1269–1288.e12.
10.
FerreroGMahonyCBDupuisE, et al. Embryonic microglia derive from primitive macrophages and are replaced by cmyb-dependent definitive microglia in zebrafish. Cell Rep2018; 24(1): 130–141.
11.
ZhaoYXSongJYBaoXW, et al. Single-cell RNA sequencing-guided fate-mapping toolkit delineates the contribution of yolk sac erythro-myeloid progenitors. Cell Rep2023; 42(11): 113364.
12.
KurotakiDOsatoNNishiyamaA, et al. Essential role of the IRF8–KLF4 transcription factor cascade in murine monocyte differentiation. Blood2013; 121(10): 1839–1849.
13.
TamuraTThotakuraPTanakaTS, et al. Identification of target genes and a unique cis element regulated by IRF-8 in developing macrophages. Blood2005; 106(6): 1938–1947.
14.
SaekiKPanRLeeE, et al. IRF8 defines the epigenetic landscape in postnatal microglia, thereby directing their transcriptome programs. Nat Immunol2024; 25(10):1928–1942.
15.
HerbomelPThisseBThisseC.Zebrafish early macrophages colonize cephalic mesenchyme and developing brain, retina, and epidermis through a M-CSF receptor-dependent invasive process. Dev Biol2001; 238(2): 274–288.
16.
PangRKZhengJYXuHY, et al. Microglia specific Csf1r haploinsufficiency induces depressive-like behaviors by promoting NLRP6/caspase-1 signaling in mice. Brain Behav Immun2025; 128: 383–399.
GreenLAO’DeaMRHooverCA, et al. The embryonic zebrafish brain is seeded by a lymphatic-dependent population of mrc1(+) microglia precursors. Nat Neurosci2022; 25(7): 849–864.
19.
GoldmannTWieghoferPJordaoMJ, et al. Origin, fate and dynamics of macrophages at central nervous system interfaces. Nat Immunol2016; 17(7): 797–805.
20.
UtzSGSeePMildenbergerW, et al. Early fate defines microglia and non-parenchymal brain macrophage development. Cell2020; 181(3): 557–573.e18.
21.
ButovskyOJedrychowskiMPMooreCS, et al. Identification of a unique TGF-beta-dependent molecular and functional signature in microglia. Nat Neurosci2014; 17(1): 131–143.
22.
MasudaTAmannLMonacoG, et al. Specification of CNS macrophage subsets occurs postnatally in defined niches. Nature2022; 604(7907): 740–748.
23.
Matcovitch-NatanOWinterDRGiladiA, et al. Microglia development follows a stepwise program to regulate brain homeostasis. Science2016; 353(6301): aad8670.
24.
StremmelCSchuchertRWagnerF, et al. Yolk sac macrophage progenitors traffic to the embryo during defined stages of development. Nat Commun2018; 9(1): 75.
25.
Gomez PerdigueroEKlapprothKSchulzC, et al. Tissue-resident macrophages originate from yolk-sac-derived erythro-myeloid progenitors. Nature2015; 518(7540): 547–551.
26.
MondoEBeckerSCKautzmanAG, et al. A developmental analysis of juxtavascular microglia dynamics and interactions with the vasculature. J Neurosci2020; 40(34): 6503–6521.
27.
PaolicelliRCBolascoGPaganiF, et al. Synaptic pruning by microglia is necessary for normal brain development. Science2011; 333(6048): 1456–1458.
28.
SumnerATRobinsonJA. A difference in dry mass between the heads of X- and Y-bearing human spermatozoa. J Reprod Fertil1976; 48(1): 9–15.
29.
KoushikSVWangJRogersR, et al. Targeted inactivation of the sodium–calcium exchanger (Ncx1) results in the lack of a heartbeat and abnormal myofibrillar organization. FASEB J2001; 15(7): 1209–1211.
30.
OvchinnikovDAvan ZuylenWJDeBatsCE, et al. Expression of Gal4-dependent transgenes in cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system labeled with enhanced cyan fluorescent protein using Csf1r–Gal4VP16/UAS–ECFP double-transgenic mice. J Leukoc Biol2008; 83(2): 430–433.
31.
PetryPOschwaldAMerktS, et al. Early microglia progenitors colonize the embryonic CNS via integrin-mediated migration from the pial surface. Dev Cell2026; 61(1): 85–101 e107.
32.
HattoriYKatoDMurayamaF, et al. CD206(+) macrophages transventricularly infiltrate the early embryonic cerebral wall to differentiate into microglia. Cell Rep2023; 42(2): 112092.
33.
SwinnenNSmoldersSAvilaA, et al. Complex invasion pattern of the cerebral cortex bymicroglial cells during development of the mouse embryo. Glia2013; 61(2): 150–163.
ChituVGokhanSNandiS, et al. Emerging roles for CSF-1 receptor and its ligands in the nervous system. Trends Neurosci2016; 39(6): 378–393.
36.
Easley-NealCForemanOSharmaN, et al. CSF1R ligands IL-34 and CSF1 are differentially required for microglia development and maintenance in white and gray matter brain regions. Front Immunol2019; 10: 2199.
37.
BadimonAStrasburgerHJAyataP, et al. Negative feedback control of neuronal activity by microglia. Nature2020; 586(7829): 417–423.
38.
WuSXueRHassanS, et al. Il34–Csf1r pathway regulates the migration and colonization of microglial precursors. Dev Cell2018; 46(5): 552–563.e4.
39.
McKinseyGLSantanderNZhangX, et al. Radial glia integrin avb8 regulates cell autonomous microglial TGFbeta1 signaling that is necessary for microglial identity. Nat Commun2025; 16(1): 2840.
40.
FixsenBRHanCZZhouY, et al. SALL1 enforces microglia-specific DNA binding and function of SMADs to establish microglia identity. Nat Immunol2023; 24(7): 1188–1199.
41.
SpittauBDokalisNPrinzM.The role of TGFbeta signaling in microglia maturation and activation. Trends Immunol2020; 41(9): 836–848.
42.
ZollerTSchneiderAKleimeyerC, et al. Silencing of TGFbeta signalling in microglia results in impaired homeostasis. Nat Commun2018; 9(1): 4011.
43.
BedollaAWegmanEWeedM, et al. Adult microglial TGFbeta1 is required for microglia homeostasis via an autocrine mechanism to maintain cognitive function in mice. Nat Commun2024; 15(1): 5306.
44.
HuguesNLuoY.Tilting homeostatic and dyshomeostatic microglial balance in health and disease: transforming growth factor-beta1 as a critical protagonist. Neural Regen Res2025; 20(10): 2895–2897.
45.
ButtgereitALeliosIYuX, et al. Sall1 is a transcriptional regulator defining microglia identity and function. Nat Immunol2016; 17(12): 1397–1406.
46.
HammondTRDufortCDissing-OlesenL, et al. Single-cell RNA sequencing of microglia throughout the mouse lifespan and in the injured brain reveals complex cell-state changes. Immunity2019; 50(1): 253–271.e6.
47.
Barry-CarrollLGreulichPMarshallAR, et al. Microglia colonize the developing brain by clonal expansion of highly proliferative progenitors, following allometric scaling. Cell Rep2023; 42(5): 112425.
48.
AskewKGomez-NicolaD.A story of birth and death: insights into the formation and dynamics of the microglial population. Brain Behav Immun2018; 69: 9–17.
49.
HattoriYNaitoYTsugawaY, et al. Transient microglial absence assists postmigratory cortical neurons in proper differentiation. Nat Commun2020; 11(1): 1631.
50.
ArnoBGrassivaroFRossiC, et al. Neural progenitor cells orchestrate microglia migration and positioning into the developing cortex. Nat Commun2014; 5: 5611.
51.
BennettMLBennettFCLiddelowSA, et al. New tools for studying microglia in the mouse and human CNS. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A2016; 113(12): E1738–E1746.
52.
MasudaTSankowskiRStaszewskiO, et al. Spatial and temporal heterogeneity of mouse and human microglia at single-cell resolution. Nature2019; 566(7744): 388–392.
53.
MoriniRTagliattiEBizzottoM, et al. Microglial and TREM2 dialogues in the developing brain. Immunity2025; 58(5): 1068–1084.
54.
HealyLMZiaSPlemelJR.Towards a definition of microglia heterogeneity. Commun Biol2022; 5(1): 1114.
55.
LiQChengZZhouL, et al. Developmental heterogeneity of microglia and brain myeloid cells revealed by deep single-cell RNA sequencing. Neuron2019; 101(2): 207–223.e10.
56.
HagemeyerNHanftKMAkriditouMA, et al. Microglia contribute to normal myelinogenesis and to oligodendrocyte progenitor maintenance during adulthood. Acta Neuropathol2017; 134(3): 441–458.
57.
Vidal-ItriagoARadfordRAWAramidehJA, et al. Microglia morphophysiological diversity and its implications for the CNS. Front Immunol2022; 13: 997786.
58.
ValiukasZTangalakisKApostolopoulosV, et al. Microglial activation states and their implications for Alzheimer’s disease. J Prev Alzheimers Dis2025; 12(1): 100013.
59.
PaolicelliRCSierraAStevensB, et al. Microglia states and nomenclature: a field at its crossroads. Neuron2022; 110(21): 3458–3483.
60.
LuoEYSugimuraRR.Taming microglia: the promise of engineered microglia in treating neurological diseases. J Neuroinflammation2024; 21(1): 19.
61.
AttaaiANeidertNvon EhrA, et al. Postnatal maturation of microglia is associated with alternative activation and activated TGFbeta signaling. Glia2018; 66(8): 1695–1708.
62.
RojoRRaperAOzdemirDD, et al. Deletion of a Csf1r enhancer selectively impacts CSF1R expression and development of tissue macrophage populations. Nat Commun2019; 10(1): 3215.
63.
PridansCRaperADavisGM, et al. Pleiotropic impacts of macrophage and microglial deficiency on development in rats with targeted mutation of the Csf1r locus. J Immunol2018; 201(9): 2683–2699.
64.
OkojieAKUweruJOCoburnMA, et al. Distinguishing the effects of systemic CSF1R inhibition by PLX3397 on microglia and peripheral immune cells. J Neuroinflammation2023; 20(1): 242.
65.
SpangenbergESeversonPLHohsfieldLA, et al. Sustained microglial depletion with CSF1R inhibitor impairs parenchymal plaque development in an Alzheimer’s disease model. Nat Commun2019; 10(1): 3758.
66.
GreenKNCrapserJDHohsfieldLA.To kill a microglia: a case for CSF1R inhibitors. Trends Immunol2020; 41(9): 771–784.
67.
BedollaATaranovALuoF, et al. Diphtheria toxin induced but not CSF1R inhibitor mediated microglia ablation model leads to the loss of CSF/ventricular spaces in vivo that is independent of cytokine upregulation. J Neuroinflammation2022; 19(1): 3.
68.
BennettFCBennettMLYaqoobF, et al. A combination of ontogeny and CNS environment establishes microglial identity. Neuron2018; 98(6): 1170–1183.e8.
69.
SkandikMFriessLVazquez-CabreraG, et al. Age-associated microglial transcriptome leads to diminished immunogenicity and dysregulation of MCT4 and P2RY12/P2RY13 related functions. Cell Death Discov2025; 11(1): 16.
70.
BoyleCLansdorpPMEdelstein-KeshetL.Predicting the number of lifetime divisions for hematopoietic stem cells from telomere length measurements. iScience2023; 26(7): 107053.
71.
YousefHCzupallaCJLeeD, et al. Aged blood impairs hippocampal neural precursor activity and activates microglia via brain endothelial cell VCAM1. Nat Med2019; 25(6): 988–1000.
72.
AntignanoILiuYOffermannN, et al. Aging microglia. Cell Mol Life Sci2023; 80(5): 126.
73.
JavanmehrNSalekiKAlijanizadehP, et al. Microglia dynamics in aging-related neurobehavioral and neuroinflammatory diseases. J Neuroinflammation2022; 19(1): 273.
74.
ButovskyOWeinerHL.Microglial signatures and their role in health and disease. Nat Rev Neurosci2018; 19(10): 622–635.
75.
LiXLiYJinY, et al. Transcriptional and epigenetic decoding of the microglial aging process. Nat Aging2023; 3(10): 1288–1311.
76.
MarschallingerJIramTZardenetaM, et al. Lipid-droplet-accumulating microglia represent a dysfunctional and proinflammatory state in the aging brain. Nat Neurosci2020; 23(2): 194–208.
77.
SafaiyanSKannaiyanNSnaideroN, et al. Age-related myelin degradation burdens the clearance function of microglia during aging. Nat Neurosci2016; 19(8): 995–998.
78.
SafaiyanSBesson-GirardSKayaT, et al. White matter aging drives microglial diversity. Neuron2021; 109(7): 1100–1117.e10.
79.
HefendehlJKNeherJJSuhsRB, et al. Homeostatic and injury-induced microglia behavior in the aging brain. Aging Cell2014; 13(1): 60–69.
80.
KunkleBWGrenier-BoleyBSimsR, et al. Genetic meta-analysis of diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease identifies new risk loci and implicates Abeta, tau, immunity and lipid processing. Nat Genet2019; 51(3): 414–430.
81.
SarlusHHenekaMT.Microglia in Alzheimer’s disease. J Clin Invest2017; 127(9): 3240–3249.
82.
Keren-ShaulHSpinradAWeinerA, et al. A unique microglia type associated with restricting development of Alzheimer’s disease. Cell2017; 169(7): 1276–1290.e17.
83.
MaphisNXuGKokiko-CochranON, et al. Reactive microglia drive tau pathology and contribute to the spreading of pathological tau in the brain. Brain2015; 138(Pt 6): 1738–1755.
84.
PereaJRLlorens-MartinMAvilaJ, et al. The role of microglia in the spread of tau: relevance for tauopathies. Front Cell Neurosci2018; 12: 172.
85.
AsaiHIkezuSTsunodaS, et al. Depletion of microglia and inhibition of exosome synthesis halt tau propagation. Nat Neurosci2015; 18(11): 1584–1593.
86.
ScheiblichHEikensFWischhofL, et al. Microglia rescue neurons from aggregate-induced neuronal dysfunction and death through tunneling nanotubes. Neuron2024; 112(18): 3106–3125 e3108.
87.
KrasemannSMadoreCCialicR, et al. The TREM2–APOE pathway drives the transcriptional phenotype of dysfunctional microglia in neurodegenerative diseases. Immunity2017; 47(3): 566–581.e9.
88.
Sala FrigerioCWolfsLFattorelliN, et al. The major risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease: age, sex, and genes modulate the microglia response to Abeta plaques. Cell Rep2019; 27(4): 1293–1306.e6.
89.
GanYLiuQWuW, et al. Ischemic neurons recruit natural killer cells that accelerate brain infarction. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A2014; 111(7): 2704–2709.
90.
KraftPSchwarzTGobE, et al. The phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor rolipram protects from ischemic stroke in mice by reducing blood–brain-barrier damage, inflammation and thrombosis. Exp Neurol2013; 247: 80–90.
91.
YangFSumbriaRKXueD, et al. Effects of PDE4 pathway inhibition in rat experimental stroke. J Pharm Pharm Sci2014; 17(3): 362–370.
92.
XuBXuJCaiN, et al. Roflumilast prevents ischemic stroke-induced neuronal damage by restricting GSK3beta-mediated oxidative stress and IRE1alpha/TRAF2/JNK pathway. Free Radic Biol Med2021; 163: 281–296.
93.
VilhenaERBonatoJMSchepersM, et al. Positive effects of roflumilast on behavior, neuroinflammation, and white matter injury in mice with global cerebral ischemia. Behav Pharmacol2021; 32(6): 459–471.
94.
ShiFDYongVW.Neuroinflammation across neurological diseases. Science2025; 388(6753): eadx0043.
95.
XiangRWangJChenZ, et al. Spatiotemporal transcriptomic maps of mouse intracerebral hemorrhage at single-cell resolution. Neuron2025; 113(13): 2102–2122.e7.
96.
PrassKMeiselCHoflichC, et al. Stroke-induced immunodeficiency promotes spontaneous bacterial infections and is mediated by sympathetic activation reversal by poststroke T helper cell type 1-like immunostimulation. J Exp Med2003; 198(5): 725–736.
97.
DirnaglUKlehmetJBraunJS, et al. Stroke-induced immunodepression: experimental evidence and clinical relevance. Stroke2007; 38(2 suppl): 770–773.
98.
FauraJBustamanteAMiro-MurF, et al. Stroke-induced immunosuppression: implications for the prevention and prediction of post-stroke infections. J Neuroinflammation2021; 18(1): 127.
99.
MracskoELieszAKarcherS, et al. Differential effects of sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis on systemic immune cells after severe experimental stroke. Brain Behav Immun2014; 41: 200–209.
100.
TuzAAGhoshSKarschL, et al. Stroke and myocardial infarction induce neutrophil extracellular trap release disrupting lymphoid organ structure and immunoglobulin secretion. Nat Cardiovasc Res2024; 3(5): 525–540.
101.
HoffmannSHarmsHUlmL, et al. Stroke-induced immunodepression and dysphagia independently predict stroke-associated pneumonia—the PREDICT study. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab2017; 37(12): 3671–3682.
102.
WorthmannHTrycABDirksM, et al. Lipopolysaccharide binding protein, interleukin-10, interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein blood levels in acute ischemic stroke patients with post-stroke infection. J Neuroinflammation2015; 12: 13.
103.
UrraXLaredoCZhaoY, et al. Neuroanatomical correlates of stroke-associated infection and stroke-induced immunodepression. Brain Behav Immun2017; 60: 142–150.
104.
MracskoELieszAStojanovicA, et al. Antigen dependently activated cluster of differentiation 8-positive T cells cause perforin-mediated neurotoxicity in experimental stroke. J Neurosci2014; 34(50): 16784–16795.
105.
LiuQJinWNLiuY, et al. Brain ischemia suppresses immunity in the periphery and brain via different neurogenic innervations. Immunity2017; 46(3): 474–487.
106.
WangSde FabritusLKumarPA, et al. Brain endothelial CXCL12 attracts protective natural killer cells during ischemic stroke. J Neuroinflammation2023; 20(1): 8.
107.
BrandenburgSBlankABungertAD, et al. Distinction of microglia and macrophages in glioblastoma: close relatives, different tasks?. Int J Mol Sci2020; 22(1): 194.
108.
BourneJHSuthyaARWanrooyBJ, et al. Microglia are prominent producers of inflammatory cytokines during the hyperacute phase of ischemic stroke. Commun Biol2025; 8(1): 1193.
109.
JiaJZhengLYeL, et al. CD11c(+) microglia promote white matter repair after ischemic stroke. Cell Death Dis2023; 14(2): 156.
110.
CaiWDaiXChenJ, et al. STAT6/Arg1 promotes microglia/macrophage efferocytosis and inflammation resolution in stroke mice. JCI Insight2019; 4(20): e131355.
111.
SzalayGMartineczBLenartN, et al. Microglia protect against brain injury and their selective elimination dysregulates neuronal network activity after stroke. Nat Commun2016; 7: 11499.
112.
Otxoa-de-AmezagaAMiro-MurFPedragosaJ, et al. Microglial cell loss after ischemic stroke favors brain neutrophil accumulation. Acta Neuropathol2019; 137(2): 321–341.
113.
JinWNShiSXLiZ, et al. Depletion of microglia exacerbates postischemic inflammation and brain injury. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab2017; 37(6): 2224–2236.
114.
BeukerCSchafflickDStreckerJK, et al. Stroke induces disease-specific myeloid cells in the brain parenchyma and pia. Nat Commun2022; 13(1): 945.
115.
ZhengKLinLJiangW, et al. Single-cell RNA-seq reveals the transcriptional landscape in ischemic stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab2022; 42(1): 56–73.
116.
Del AguilaAZhangRYuX, et al. Microglial heterogeneity in the ischemic stroke mouse brain of both sexes. Genome Med2024; 16(1): 95.
117.
ZhaoQLiJFengJ, et al. Cholesterol metabolic reprogramming mediates microglia-induced chronic neuroinflammation and hinders neurorestoration following stroke. Nat Metab2025; 7(10): 2099–2116.
118.
LiXLyuJLiR, et al. Single-cell transcriptomic analysis of the immune cell landscape in the aged mouse brain after ischemic stroke. J Neuroinflammation2022; 19(1): 83.
119.
ClausenBHLambertsenKLBabcockAA, et al. Interleukin-1beta and tumor necrosis factor-alpha are expressed by different subsets of microglia and macrophages after ischemic stroke in mice. J Neuroinflammation2008; 5: 46.
120.
WangDLiuFZhuL, et al. FGF21 alleviates neuroinflammation following ischemic stroke by modulating the temporal and spatial dynamics of microglia/macrophages. J Neuroinflammation2020; 17(1): 257.
121.
AnttilaJEPoyhonenSAiravaaraM.Secondary pathology of the thalamus after focal cortical stroke in rats is not associated with thermal or mechanical hypersensitivity and is not alleviated by intra-thalamic post-stroke delivery of recombinant CDNF or MANF. Cell Transplant2019; 28(4): 425–438.
122.
ParkKWJuHKimID, et al. Delayed Infiltration of peripheral monocyte contributes to phagocytosis and transneuronal degeneration in chronic stroke. Stroke2022; 53(7): 2377–2388.
123.
JayarajRLAzimullahSBeiramR, et al. Neuroinflammation: friend and foe for ischemic stroke. J Neuroinflammation2019; 16(1): 142.
124.
TuttolomondoAPecoraroRPintoA.Studies of selective TNF inhibitors in the treatment of brain injury from stroke and trauma: a review of the evidence to date. Drug Des Devel Ther2014; 8: 2221–2238.
125.
QinCZhouLQMaXT, et al. Dual functions of microglia in ischemic stroke. Neurosci Bull2019; 35(5): 921–933.
126.
ZhangXLiHGuY, et al. Repair-associated macrophages increase after early-phase microglia attenuation to promote ischemic stroke recovery. Nat Commun2025; 16(1): 3089.
LiXShanJLiuX, et al. Microglial repopulation induced by PLX3397 protects against ischemic brain injury by suppressing neuroinflammation in aged mice. Int Immunopharmacol2024; 138: 112473.
129.
Garcia-BonillaLShahanoorZSciortinoR, et al. Analysis of brain and blood single-cell transcriptomics in acute and subacute phases after experimental stroke. Nat Immunol2024; 25(2): 357–370.
130.
JuHKimIDPavlovaI, et al. Ischemic conditioning promotes transneuronal survival and stroke recovery via CD36-mediated efferocytosis. Circ Res2025; 136(5): e34–e51.
131.
BaufeldCO’LoughlinECalcagnoN, et al. Differential contribution of microglia and monocytes in neurodegenerative diseases. J Neural Transm2018; 125(5): 809–826.
132.
Eme-ScolanEDandoSJ.Tools and approaches for studying microglia in vivo. Front Immunol2020; 11: 583647.
133.
DumasAABorstKPrinzM.Current tools to interrogate microglial biology. Neuron2021; 109(18): 2805–2819.
134.
PlemelJRStrattonJAMichaelsNJ, et al. Microglia response following acute demyelination is heterogeneous and limits infiltrating macrophage dispersion. Sci Adv2020; 6(3): eaay6324.
135.
FuryWParkKWWuZ, et al. Sustained increases in immune transcripts and immune cell trafficking during the recovery of experimental brain ischemia. Stroke2020; 51(8): 2514–2525.
136.
ChoiBRJohnsonKRMaricD, et al. Monocyte-derived IL-6 programs microglia to rebuild damaged brain vasculature. Nat Immunol2023; 24(7): 1110–1123.
137.
JuHParkKWKimID, et al. Phagocytosis converts infiltrated monocytes to microglia-like phenotype in experimental brain ischemia. J Neuroinflammation2022; 19(1): 190.
138.
BedollaAMMcKinseyGLWareK, et al. A comparative evaluation of the strengths and potential caveats of the microglial inducible CreER mouse models. Cell Rep2024; 43(1): 113660.
139.
FaustTEFeinbergPAO’ConnorC, et al. A comparative analysis of microglial inducible Cre lines. Cell Rep2023; 42(9): 113031.
140.
KaiserTFengG.Tmem119–EGFP and Tmem119–CreERT2 transgenic mice for labeling and manipulating microglia. eNeuro2019; 6(4): e0448.
141.
McKinseyGLLizamaCOKeown-LangAE, et al. A new genetic strategy for targeting microglia in development and disease. Elife2020; 9: e54590.
142.
StansleyBPostJHensleyK.A comparative review of cell culture systems for the study of microglial biology in Alzheimer’s disease. J Neuroinflammation2012; 9: 115.
143.
WittingAMollerT.Microglia cell culture: a primer for the novice. Methods Mol Biol2011; 758: 49–66.
144.
BohlenCJBennettFCTuckerAF, et al. Diverse requirements for microglial survival, specification, and function revealed by defined-medium cultures. Neuron2017; 94(4): 759–773.e8.
145.
SimatsAZhangSMessererD, et al. Innate immune memory after brain injury drives inflammatory cardiac dysfunction. Cell2024; 187(17): 4637–4655.e26.
146.
DuanMXuYLiY, et al. Targeting brain-peripheral immune responses for secondary brain injury after ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke. J Neuroinflammation2024; 21(1): 102.
