Noncompliance is a frequently reported challenging behavior for young children. However, many interventions that address noncompliance fail to consider crucial self-advocacy skills that may be jeopardized when compliance is taught in isolation. We examined the noncompliance literature in the context of ethical considerations for young children: (1) decision-making skills related to compliance, (2) teaching discrimination within contexts where compliance may or may not be appropriate, and (3) addressing support needs that may impact compliance. We found that many noncompliance assessments were not developmentally appropriate, related support needs were largely unaddressed, and ethical factors were infrequently considered when designing noncompliance interventions. Researchers and practitioners should consider assessments that identify ecological factors and support needs related to noncompliance. Young children should be taught discrimination of contexts where noncompliance is appropriate and where compliance is appropriate to promote volitional skills that are necessary for future independence.
AllisonJ.WilderD. A.TeoH. L.FlynnA.MyersK. (2011). The effect of the availability of a similar toy on compliance with instructions to surrender a toy among preschool children. Behavioral Interventions, 26(3), 167–178.
2.
AustinJ. L.AgarG. (2005). Helping young children follow their teachers’ directions: The utility of high probability command sequences in pre-K and kindergarten classrooms. Education and Treatment of Children, 28(3), 222–236.
BrownK. R.BroidoE. M. (2020). Ableism and assessment: Including students with disabilities. New Directions for Student Services, 2020(169), 31–41.
5.
ChazinK. T.LedfordJ. R. (2016). Preference assessments. Evidence-based instructional practices for young children with autism and other disabilities. http://ebip.vkcsites.org/preference-assessments
Division for Early Childhood of the Council of Exceptional Children. (2017). Position statement on challenging behavior and young children. Zero to Three, 38(2), 33–42.
DunlapG.StrainP. S.FoxL.CartaJ. J.ConroyM.SmithB. J.KernL.HemmeterM. L.TimmM. A.MccartA.SailorW.MarkeyU.MarkeyD. J.LardieriS.SowellC. (2006). Prevention and intervention with young children’s challenging behavior: Perspectives regarding current knowledge. Behavioral Disorders, 32(1), 29–45.
10.
DurandV. M.MoskowitzL. (2015). Functional communication training: Thirty years of treating challenging behavior. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 35(2), 116–126.
11.
FoxL.LentiniR. H. (2006). “You got it!” teaching social and emotional skills. Young Children, 61(6), 36.
12.
GastD. L.LloydB. P.LedfordJ. R. (2018). Multiple baseline and multiple probe designs. In LedfordJ. R.GastD. L. (Eds.), Single case research methodology (pp. 239–281). Routledge.
13.
GrowL.CarrJ.KodakT.JostadC.KisamoreA. (2011). A comparison of methods for teaching receptive labeling to children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44, 475–498.
14.
HarrellE. (2017). Crime against persons with disabilities, 2009-2015-Statistical tables. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
15.
HemmeterM.FoxL.SnyderP. (2013). A tiered model for promoting social-emotional competence and addressing challenging behavior. In BuysseV.Peisner-FeinbergE. S. (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention in early childhood (pp. 85–101). Paul H Brookes Publishing Co.
16.
IwataB.DozierC. (2008). Clinical application of functional analysis methodology. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 1(1), 3–9.
17.
Jimenez-GomezC.BeaulieuL. (2022). Cultural responsiveness in applied behavior analysis: Research and practice. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 55(3), 650–673.
18.
KimY. (2010). Personal safety programs for children with intellectual disabilities. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 45, 312–319.
19.
KuczynskiL.KochanskaG.Radke-YarrowM.Girnius-BrownO. (1987). A developmental interpretation of young children’s noncompliance. Developmental Psychology, 23(6), 799.
20.
LedfordJ.LaneJ. D.BartonE. E. (2019). Methods for teaching in early education (1st ed.). Routledge.
21.
LinH. L.LawrenceF. R.GorrellJ. (2003). Kindergarten teachers’ views of children’s readiness for school. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 18(2), 225–237.
22.
LosinskiM.SandersS.KatsiyannisA.WisemanN. (2017). A meta-analysis of interventions to improve the compliance of students with disabilities. Education and Treatment of Children, 40(4), 435–463.
23.
MaloneE. J.ZimmermanK. N.JooS. H. (2023). A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of NC Interventions for Young Children. Poster at Association for Positive Behavior Support Conference, Jacksonville, FL.
24.
MatsonJ. L.BoisjoliJ.MahanS. (2009). The relation of communication and challenging behaviors in infants and toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 21, 253–261.
25.
MoesD. R.FreaW. D. (2000). Using family context to inform intervention planning for the treatment of a child with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2(1), 40–46.
26.
MoherD.LiberatiA.TetzlaffJ.AltmanD., & PRISMA Group. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLOS Medicine, 6, e1000097.
27.
National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2011). NAEYC code of ethical conduct and statement of commitment: A position statement of the National Association for the Education of Young Children. https://tinyurl.com/2px3sdd7
28.
National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2020a). Developmentally appropriate practice: A position statement of the National Association for the Education of Young Children.
29.
National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2020b). Developmentally appropriate practice: Recommendations for research.
30.
National Center for Pyramid Model Interventions. (2021). Pyramid model practices implementation checklist. https://tinyurl.com/2s36ky9m.
31.
NiemiecR. M.ShogrenK. A.WehmeyerM. L. (2017). Character strengths and intellectual and developmental disability: A strengths-based approach from positive psychology. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 52(1), 13–25.
32.
Office of Head Start. (2015). Head Start early learning outcomes framework: Ages birth to five. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
33.
OwenD.SlepA. M.HeymanR. (2012). The effect of praise, positive nonverbal response, reprimand, and negative nonverbal response on child compliance: A systematic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 15, 364–385.
34.
PalmerS. B.WehmeyerM. L. (2003). Promoting self-determination in early elementary school: Teaching self-regulated problem-solving and goal-setting skills. Remedial and special education, 24(2), 115–126.
35.
PalmerS.SummersJ.BrothersonM.ErwinE.MaudeS.Stroup-RentierV.WuH.-Y.PeckN. F.ZhengY.WeigelC. J.ChuS.-Y.McGrathG. S.HainesS. (2013). Foundations for self-determination in early childhood: An inclusive model for children with disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 33, 38–47.
36.
PokorskiE. A.BartonE. E. (2021). A systematic review of the ethics of punishment-based procedures for young children with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 42, 262–275.
37.
RadleyK.DartE. (2016). Antecedent strategies to promote children’s and adolescents’ compliance with adult requests: A review of the literature. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 19, 39–54.
38.
ShymanE. (2016). The reinforcement of ableism: Normality, the medical model of disability, and humanism in applied behavior analysis and ASD. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 54(5), 366–376.
39.
SmithN.HarrellS. (2013). Sexual abuse of children with disabilities: A national snapshot. VERA Institute of Justice, Center on Victimization and Safety.
40.
SnellM. E.BerlinR. A.VoorheesM. D.Stanton-ChapmanT. L.HaddenS. (2012). A survey of preschool staff concerning problem behavior and its prevention in Head Start classrooms. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 14(2), 98–107.
41.
SobseyD. (2004). Sexual abuse of individuals with intellectual disability. In CraftA. (Ed.), Practice issues in sexuality and learning disabilities (pp. 91–112). Routledge.
42.
SteedE. A.KranskiT. A. (2020). Participant characteristics in research on interventions for young children with challengingbehavior: A systematic review. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 40(2), 110–123.
43.
StichterJ.ConroyM. (2005). Using structural analysis in natural settings: A responsive functional assessment strategy. Journal of Behavioral Education, 14, 19–34.
44.
WehmeyerM.PalmerS. (2000). Promoting the acquisition and development of self-determination in young children with disabilities. Early Education and Development, 11, 465–481.
45.
What Works Clearing House. (2016). WWC intervention report: Functional behavioral assessment-based interventions. US Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences.
46.
WoodB. K.Cho BlairK. S.FerroJ. B. (2009). Young children with challenging behavior: Function-based assessment and intervention. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 29(2), 68–78.
47.
WrightP. I. (2019). Cultural humility in the practice of applied behavior analysis. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 12(4),805–809.
48.
WurteleS.KastL.Miller-PerrinL.KondrickP. (1989). Comparison of programs for teaching personal safety skills to preschoolers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 505.
49.
ZaghlawanH.OstroskyM. (2011). Circle time: An exploratory study of activities and challenging behavior in head start classrooms. Early Childhood Education Journal, 38, 439–448.
50.
ZimmermanK. N.LedfordJ.R.BartonE. E. (2017). Using visual activity schedules for young children with challenging behavior. Journal of Early Intervention, 39(4), 339–358.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
