This article reviews prominent research on non-English-speaking children’s extramural acquisition of English through digital media, and examines the understudied scenario of possible effects of such second language (L2) English input on domestically dominant but globally small first languages (L1s), with Icelandic as the test case. We outline the main results of the children’s part of the Modeling the Linguistic Consequences of Digital Language Contact (MoLiCoDiLaCo) research project, which targeted 724 3–12-year-old Icelandic-speaking children. The focus is on English input and its relationship to the children’s Icelandic/English vocabulary and Icelandic grammar. Although a causal relationship between digital English and reduced/incompletely acquired Icelandic is often assumed in public discourse, our results do not show large-scale effects of L2 digital English on L1 Icelandic. English still seems to be a relatively small part of Icelandic children’s language environment, and although we find some indications of contact induced/reinforced language change, i.e. in the standard use of the subjunctive, as well as reduced MLU/NDW (mean length of utterance/number of different words) in the Icelandic language samples, we do not find pervasive effects of L2 English on L1 Icelandic. On the other hand, the results show contextual L2 learning of English by Icelandic-speaking children through mostly receptive digital input. Thus, the results imply that English digital language input contributes mainly to L2 English skills without adversely affecting L1 Icelandic.
ArnbjörnsdóttirB (2018) English exposure, proficiency and use in Iceland. In: ArnbjörnsdóttirBIngvarsdóttirH (eds) Language development across the life span: The impact of English on education and work in Iceland. Cham: Springer, pp. 35–55.
Council of Europe (2001) Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.
4.
CrystalD (2003) English as a global language. 2nd edition.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5.
De WildeVEyckmansJ (2017) Game on! Young learners’ incidental language learning of English prior to instruction. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching7: 673–94.
6.
De WildeVBrysbaertMEyckmansJ (2020) Learning English through out-of-school exposure. Which levels of language proficiency are attained and which types of input are important?Bilingualism: Language and Cognition23: 171–85.
7.
DuncanTSParadisJ (2019) Using television to boost native-speaker input for L2-learning children: A cautionary tale. In: BrownMMDaileyB (eds) Proceedings of the 43rd Boston University Conference on Language Development. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press, pp. 639–52.
EinarsdóttirJTPétursdóttirALRúnarsdóttirÍD (2019) Tíðni orða í tali barna [Frequency of words in children’s speech]. Reykjavík: Háskólaútgáfan.
10.
ElgortIBrysbaertMStevensMVan AsscheE (2018) Contextual word learning during reading in a second language: An eye movement study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition40: 341–66.
HelgadóttirSSvavarsdóttirÁRögnvaldssonEBjarnadóttirKLoftssonH (2012) The tagged Icelandic Corpus (MÍM). In: Proceedings of the Workshop on Language Technology for Normalisation of Less-Resourced Languages – SALTMiL 8 – AfLaT2012: 67–72. Istanbul: European Language Resource Association. Available at: https://malheildir.arnastofnun.is/?mode=mim (accessed March 2021).
13.
Hilmarsson-DunnAKristinssonAP (2010) The language situation in Iceland. Current Issues in Language Planning11: 207–76.
14.
HoffERumicheRBurridgeARibotKMWelshSN (2014) Expressive vocabulary development in children from bilingual and monolingual homes: A longitudinal study from two to four years. Early Childhood Research Quarterly29: 433–44.
JóhannsdóttirÁ (2018) English exposure and vocabulary proficiency at the onset of English instruction. In: ArnbjörnsdóttirBIngvarsdóttirH (eds) Language development across the life span: The impact of English on education and work in Iceland. Cham: Springer, pp. 57–78.
17.
JóhannsdóttirÁRögnvaldssonE (2018) The frequency level of young Icelandic children’s English vocabulary proficiency. Talk at the 3rd Early Language Learning Conference, Reykjavík.
18.
KuppensAH (2010) Incidental foreign language acquisition from media exposure. Learning, Media and Technology35: 65–85.
19.
LefeverS (2010) English skills of young learners in Iceland: ‘I started talking English when I was 4 years old. It just bang . . . just fall into me.’ In: SigurgeirssonI, et al. (eds) Ráðstefnurit Netlu: Menntakvika. Reykjavík: Menntavísindasvið Háskóla Íslands. Available at: http://hdl.handle.net/1946/7811 (accessed March 2021).
LindgrenEMuñozC (2013) The influence of exposure, parents, and linguistic distance on young European learners’ foreign language comprehension. International Journal of Multilingualism10: 105–29.
22.
MadiganSBrowneDRacineNMoriCToughS (2019) Association between screen time and children’s performance on a developmental screening test. JAMA Pediatrics173: 244–50.
McLeodSHarrisonLJWhitefordCWalkerS (2016) Multilingualism and speech-language competence in early childhood: Impact on academic and social-emotional outcomes at school. Early Childhood Research Quarterly34: 53–66.
26.
MontrulSA (2008) Incomplete acquisition in bilingualism: Re-examining the age factor. Studies in Bilingualism, Volume 39. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
27.
OllerDKPearsonBZCobo-LewisAB (2007) Profile effects in early bilingual language and literacy. Applied Psycholinguistics28: 191–230.
28.
ParadisJGrüterT (2014) Introduction. In: GrüterTParadisJ (eds) Input and experience in bilingual development. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 1–14.
29.
PearsonBZFernándezSCLewedagVOllerDK (1997) The relation of input factors to lexical learning by bilingual infants. Applied Psycholinguistics18: 41–58.
30.
PempekTAKirkorianHLAndersonDR (2014) The effects of background television on the quantity and quality of child-directed speech by parents. Journal of Children and Media8: 211–22.
31.
PetersE (2018) The effect of out-of-class exposure to English language media on learners’ vocabulary knowledge. ITL – International Journal of Applied Linguistics169: 142–68.
32.
R Core Team (2019) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Available at: https://www.R-project.org (accessed March 2021).
33.
RagnarsdóttirH (2018) Orðaforði íslenskra barna frá 4 til 8 ára aldurs: Langtímarannsókn á vaxtarhraða og stöðugleika [Vocabulary of Icelandic children from 4 to 8 years of age: Long-term research on growth rate and stability]. In: KjaranJI (ed.) Netla – Veftímarit um uppeldi og menntun. Reykjavík: Menntavísindasvið Háskóla Íslands. Available at: http://netla.hi.is/greinar/2018/ryn/15.pdf (accessed March 2021).
RögnvaldssonE (2016) Um utanaðkomandi aðstæður íslenskrar málþróunar [On the external conditions of the historical development of Icelandic]. Skírnir190: 17–31.
36.
SchmidMS (2013) First language attrition. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism3: 94–115.
37.
SigurðardóttirÓBSigurjónsdóttirS (2020) Viðhorf íslenskra barna til íslensku og ensku: Hvað segja þau um íslensku- og enskukennslu í grunnskólum? [Icelandic children’s attitudes towards Icelandic and English: What do they tell us about the teaching of Icelandic and English in elementary schools?]. In: JóhannsdóttirThJ (ed.) Netla – Veftímarit um uppeldi og menntun: Sérrit 2020 – Menntavika 2020. Reykjavík: Menntavísindasvið Háskóla Íslands.
38.
SigurjónsdóttirSNowensteinIEThorvaldsdóttirThGuðmundsdóttirD (2020) Contact without Contact: English digital language input and its effects on L1 Icelandic. In: BrownMMKohutA (eds) Proceedings of the 44th Boston University Conference on Language Development. Somerville: Cascadilla Press, pp. 606–19.
39.
SnowCEKimYS (2007) Large problem spaces: The challenge of vocabulary for English language learners. In: WagnerRKMuseAETannenbaumKR (eds) Vocabulary acquisition: Implications for reading comprehension. New York: Guilford Press, pp. 123–39.
40.
SoraceA (2011) Pinning down the concept of ‘interface’ in bilingualism. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism1: 1–33.
SundqvistPWikströmP (2015) Out-of-school digital gameplay and in-school L2 English vocabulary outcomes. System51: 65–76.
44.
SylvénLKSundqvistP (2012) Gaming as extramural English L2 learning and L2 proficiency among young learners. ReCALL24: 302–21.
45.
TaylorGMonaghanPWestermannG (2018) Investigating the association between children’s screen media exposure and vocabulary size in the UK. Journal of Children and Media12: 51–65.
46.
ThomasonSGKaufmanT (1988) Language contact, creolization and genetic linguistics. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
47.
ThordardottirE (2011) The relationship between amount of bilingual exposure and vocabulary development. International Journal of Bilingualism14: 426–45.
48.
ThordardottirE (2015) The relationship between bilingual exposure and morphosyntactic development. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology17: 97–114.
49.
ThordardottirEJuliusdottirAJ (2013) Icelandic as a second language: A longitudinal study of language knowledge and processing by school-age children. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism16: 411–35.
50.
ThráinssonHThórðardóttirG (2015) Hættir og tíðir [Moods and tenses]. In: ThráinssonHAngantýssonÁSigurðssonEF (eds) Tilbrigði í íslenskri setningagerð II. Reykjavík: Málvísindastofnun Háskóla Íslands, pp. 177–201.
UNESCO Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages (2011) UNESCO’s Language vitality and endangerment methodological guideline: Review of application and feedback since 2003. Paris: UNESCO.
53.
UnsworthS (2015) Amount of exposure as a proxy for dominance in bilingual language acquisition. In: Silva-CorvalánCTreffers-DallerJ (eds) Language dominance in bilinguals: Issues of measurement and operationalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 156–73.
54.
UnsworthS (2016) Quantity and quality of language input in bilingual language development. In: NicoladisEMontanariS (eds) Lifespan perspectives on bilingualism. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 136–96.
