In today's technology-driven healthcare landscape, AI competencies are essential for medical students. This study assessed AI literacy and online information search (OIS) skills among 336 students from 12 public medical institutions in Sindh, Pakistan. The survey revealed strong AI literacy in areas such as hardware, software, data literacy, content creation, safety, and problem-solving, but students struggled with understanding AI errors. They also demonstrated sufficient behavioral, procedural, and meta-cognitive competencies in online information searching. A significant positive correlation between AI literacy and OIS skills was found, indicating that higher AI literacy improves students’ search abilities. These findings underscore the need to integrate AI-related skills into medical education to better prepare students for the evolving healthcare environment. The study offers insights for AI developers, AI vendors, medical educators, librarians, medical institution administrators, and policymakers on how they can play a significant role in enhancing AI literacy and search competencies in medical education.
AesaertKVan BraakJ (2015) Gender and socioeconomic-related differences in performance-based ICT competencies. Computers & Education84: 8–25.
2.
AlamäkiANybergCKimberleyA, et al. (2024) Artificial intelligence literacy in sustainable development: A learning experiment in higher education. Frontiers in Education9: 1343406.
3.
AliMY (2024) AI ChatGPT applications in libraries-challenges and opportunities. Bilgi Ve Belge Araştırmaları20: 18–26.
4.
AliMYNaeemSBBhattiR (2020) Artificial intelligence tools and perspectives of university librarians: An overview. Business Information Review37(3): 116–124.
5.
AlmatrafiOJohriALeeH (2024) A systematic review of AI literacy conceptualization, constructs, and implementation and assessment efforts (2019–2023). Computers and Education Open: 100173. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2024.100173
6.
AnjumBAsif AliMMugheriS (2022) Information literacy skills of LIS students in Pakistan: A study of University of Sargodha and University of the Punjab, Lahore. Library Philosophy & Practice (e-journal).
7.
AsimMArifMRafiqM, et al. (2023) Investigating applications of artificial intelligence in university libraries of Pakistan: An empirical study. The Journal of Academic Librarianship49(6): 102803.
8.
AtoyMBJrGarciaFROCadungogRR, et al. (2020) Linking digital literacy and online information searching strategies of Philippine university students: The moderating role of mindfulness. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science52(4): 1015–1027.
9.
AvcıÜYıldız DurakH (2022) Examination of digital citizenship, online information searching strategy and information literacy depending on changing state of experience in using digital technologies during COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Information Science: 01655515221114455.
10.
AyKErdemM (2020) An investigation on university students’ online information search strategies and relationships with some educational variables. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi35(4): 843–857.
11.
BalamanaF (2016) The effect of digital storytelling technique on the attitudes of students toward teaching technologies. Pegem Eğitim ve Öğretim Dergisi6(2): 147–168.
12.
BiaginiGCuomoSRanieriM (2024) Developing and validating a multidimensional AI literacy questionnaire: Operationalizing AI literacy for higher education. In: SchicchiDTaibiDTemperiniM (eds) Proceedings of the First International Workshop on High-Performance Artificial Intelligence Systems in Education, Rome, Italy, 6 November 2023, p.1.
13.
ByrneBM (2013) Structural Equation Modeling with EQS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming. New York: Routledge.
14.
CarolusAKochMJStrakaS, et al. (2023) MAILS-Meta AI literacy scale: Development and testing of an AI literacy questionnaire based on well-founded competency models and psychological change-and meta-competencies. Computers in Human Behavior: Artificial Humans1(2): 100014.
15.
Casal-OteroLCatalaAFernández-MoranteC, et al. (2023) AI literacy in K-12: A systematic literature review. International Journal of STEM Education10(1): 29.
16.
CetindamarDKittoKWuM, et al. (2022) Explicating AI literacy of employees at digital workplaces. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management71: 810–823.
17.
ÇevikYD (2015) Predicting college students’ online information searching strategies based on epistemological, motivational, decision-related, and demographic variables. Computers & Education90: 54–63.
18.
ChiuTKAhmadZIsmailovM, et al. (2024) What are artificial intelligence literacy and competency? A comprehensive framework to support them. Computers and Education Open6: 100171.
19.
ChuiMManyikaJMiremadiM, et al. (2018) Notes from the AI frontier: Insights from hundreds of use cases. McKinsey Global Institute2: 267.
20.
ÇoklarANYamanNDYurdakulIK (2017) Information literacy and digital nativity as determinants of online information search strategies. Computers in Human Behavior70: 1–9.
21.
CreswellJW (2012) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research. Boston: Pearson.
22.
CurtisKLWellerACHurdJM (1997) Information-seeking behavior of health sciences faculty: The impact of new information technologies. Bulletin of the Medical Library Association85(4): 402–410.
23.
DiseiyeOUkubeyinjeSEOladokunBD, et al. (2024) Emerging technologies: Leveraging digital literacy for self-sufficiency among library professionals. Metaverse Basic and Applied Research3: 59–59.
24.
DrugaSVuSTLikhithE, et al. (2019) Inclusive AI literacy for kids around the world. In: Proceedings of FabLearn 2019. New York City, NY, USA, pp.104–111.
25.
EguchiA (2021) AI-robotics and AI literacy. In: Educational Robotics International Conference. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp.75–85.
26.
EguchiAOkadaHMutoY (2021) Contextualizing AI education for K-12 students to enhance their learning of AI literacy through culturally responsive approaches. KI-Künstliche Intelligenz35: 153–161.
27.
EvansBMKairamSPirolliP (2010) Do your friends make you smarter?: An analysis of social strategies in online information seeking. Information Processing & Management46(6): 679–692.
28.
FaqihN (2023) Developing literacy and critical thinking with AI: What students say. In: Proceeding of Annual International Conference on Islamic Education (AICIED), pp.16–25.
29.
FlavellJH (1978) Metacognitive development. In: Structural/Process Theories of Complex Human Behavior. Chichester: Academic Press, pp.213–245.
30.
FornellCLarckerDF (1981) Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research18(1): 39–50.
31.
GaringanDPickardAJ (2021) Artificial intelligence in legal practice: Exploring theoretical frameworks for algorithmic literacy in the legal information profession. Legal Information Management21(2): 97–117.
32.
GecerAIraN (2015) Examining information in web environment searching and commitment strategies of university students according to demographic variables. Egitim Ve Bilim-Education And Science40(179): 383–442.
33.
GilsterP (1997) Digital Literacy. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
34.
GursoyDChiOHLuL, et al. (2019) Consumers acceptance of artificially intelligent (AI) device use in service delivery. International Journal of Information Management49: 157–169.
35.
HahnelCEichmannBGoldhammerF (2020) Evaluation of online information in university students: Development and scaling of the screening instrument EVON. Frontiers in Psychology11: 562128.
36.
HaiderMSYaC (2021) Assessment of information literacy skills and information-seeking behavior of medical students in the age of technology: A study of Pakistan. Information Discovery and Delivery49(1): 84–94.
37.
HairJFRisherJJSarstedtM, et al. (2019) When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. European Business Review31(1): 2–24.
38.
HenryLA (2005) Information search strategies on the internet: A critical component of new literacies. Webology2(1): 1–11.
39.
KajiwaraYKawabataK (2024) AI Literacy for ethical use of Chatbot: Will students accept AI ethics?Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence6: 100251.
40.
KawanoH (2000, November) Overview of Mondou Web search engine using text mining and information visualizing technologies. In: Proceedings 2000 Kyoto International Conference on Digital Libraries: Research and Practice, pp.234–244: IEEE.
KhanAKhanA (2020) Information seeking behavior of postgraduate students in the University of Peshawar, Pakistan. Library Philosophy and Practice: 4380.
43.
KongS-CCheungM-YWTsangO (2024) Developing an artificial intelligence literacy framework: Evaluation of a literacy course for senior secondary students using a project-based learning approach. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence6: 100214.
44.
KongS-CCheungWM-YZhangG (2021) Evaluation of an artificial intelligence literacy course for university students with diverse study backgrounds. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence2: 100026.
45.
KoseBTKocakO (2024) The predictors of academics’ online information searching strategies: A structural model integrating cognitive absorption and digital literacy. Library & Information Science Research46(2): 101299.
46.
KrejcieRVMorganDW (1970) Determining sample size for research activity. Education and Psychological Measurement30(3): 608–610.
47.
KulaksızT (2023) Praxeological learning approach in the development of pre-service EFL teachers’ TPACK and online information-seeking strategies. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education20(1): 52.
48.
LaupichlerMCAsterAHaverkampN, et al. (2023) Development of the “scale for the assessment of non-experts’ AI literacy”–an exploratory factor analysis. Computers in Human Behavior Reports12: 100338.
49.
LaupichlerMCAsterAMeyerheimM, et al. (2024) Medical students’ AI literacy and attitudes towards AI: A cross-sectional two-center study using pre-validated assessment instruments. BMC Medical Education24(1): 401.
50.
LaupichlerMCAsterASchirchJ, et al. (2022) Artificial intelligence literacy in higher and adult education: A scoping literature review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence3: 100101.
51.
LeeIAliSZhangH, et al. (2021, March) Developing middle school students’ AI literacy. In: Proceedings of the 52nd ACM Technical Symposium on computer science education, pp.191–197.
52.
LongDMagerkoB (2020) What is AI literacy? Competencies and design considerations. In: Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems.
53.
MertensDM (2010) Research and Evaluation in Education and Psychology: Integrating Diversity with Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
54.
MughariSNaveedMARafiqueGM (2023) Effect of information literacy on academic performance of business students in Pakistan. Libri73(4): 355–368.
55.
MughariSRafiqueGMAliMA (2024) Effect of AI literacy on work performance among medical librarians in Pakistan. The Journal of Academic Librarianship50(5): 102918.
56.
NgDTKLeungJKLChuKWS, et al. (2021) AI literacy: Definition, teaching, evaluation and ethical issues. Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology58(1): 504–509.
57.
NgDTKWuWLeungJKL, et al. (2023, July) Artificial intelligence (AI) literacy questionnaire with confirmatory factor analysis. In: 2023 IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT), pp.233–235: IEEE.
58.
OrançCRuggeriA (2021) Alexa, let me ask you something different” children's adaptive information search with voice assistants. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies3(4): 595–605.
59.
OzdenGCevikSSaritasSC (2019) Do the online information searching strategies affect individual innovativeness in nursing students?Annals of Medical Research25(4): 512–517.
60.
PuustinenMRouetJ-F (2009) Learning with new technologies: Help-seeking and information searching revisited. Computers & Education53(4): 1014–1019.
61.
ReisoğluİToksoySEErenlerS (2020) An analysis of the online information searching strategies and metacognitive skills exhibited by university students during argumentation activities. Library & Information Science Research42(3): 101019.
62.
SalhabR (2024) AI Literacy across curriculum design: Investigating college instructors’ perspectives. Online Learning28(2): n2.
63.
SchlosserTDunningDJohnsonKL, et al. (2013) How unaware are the unskilled? Empirical tests of the “signal extraction” counter explanation for the Dunning–Kruger effect in self-evaluation of performance. Journal of Economic Psychology39: 85–100.
64.
SouthworthJMigliaccioKGloverJ, et al. (2023) Developing a model for AI across the curriculum: Transforming the higher education landscape via innovation in AI literacy. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence4: 100127.
65.
SperlingKStenbergC-JMcGrathC, et al. (2024) In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review. Computers and Education Open: 100169. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2024.100169
66.
SuJNgDTKChuSKW (2023) Artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in early childhood education: The challenges and opportunities. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence4: 100124.
67.
TariqMRehmanSUMahmoodK, et al. (2018) Online information searching skills of business students. Pakistan Journal of Information Management & Libraries20: 39–59.
68.
TekedereHGökerH (2023) The role of online information searching strategies and digital literacy levels in predicting Students’ lifelong learning competencies. Participatory Educational Research10(4): 1–15.
69.
TsaiM-J (2009) Online information searching strategy inventory (OISSI): A quick version and a complete version. Computers & Education53(2): 473–483.
70.
TsaiM-JLiangJ-CHouH-T, et al. (2012) University students’ online information searching strategies in different search contexts. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology28(5).
71.
TsaiM-JLiangJ-CHsuC-Y (2021) The computational thinking scale for computer literacy education. Journal of Educational Computing Research59(4): 579–602.
72.
TsaiWCTaiWT (2003) Perceived importance as a mediator of the relationship between training assignment and training motivation. Personnel Review32(2): 151–163.
73.
WangBRauP-LPYuanT (2023) Measuring user competence in using artificial intelligence: Validity and reliability of artificial intelligence literacy scale. Behavior & Information Technology42(9): 1324–1337.
74.
WongGKMaXDillenbourgP, et al. (2020) Broadening artificial intelligence education in K-12: Where to start?ACM Inroads11(1): 20–29.
75.
WuJY (2014) Gender differences in online reading engagement, metacognitive strategies, navigation skills, and reading literacy. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning30(3): 252–271.
76.
YetisensoyORapoportA (2023) Artificial intelligence literacy teaching in social studies education. Journal of Pedagogical Research7(3): 100–110.
77.
YiY (2021) Establishing the concept of AI literacy. Jahr–European Journal of Bioethics12(2): 353–368.
78.
ZhuY-QChenL-YChenH-G, et al. (2011) How does internet information seeking help academic performance?–The moderating and mediating roles of academic self-efficacy. Computers & Education57(4): 2476–2484.
