There is a wide-spread socio-educational problem with language testing at its heart:
Speakers of minority languages are over-represented in classes for the learning
disabled, disordered and educable mentally retarded and under-represented in classes
for the gifted. This imbalance is owed to mental measurement practices that involve
language tests both directly and indirectly. The source of the problem is a general
failure to appreciate the role of language proficiencies in psychological and
educational testing. Also the relation between acquired (socially dependent)
language proficiencies and so-called non-verbal abilities may be closer than
commonly supposed. Among the questions addressed are the following: To what extent
is it possible to measure non-verbal abilities without invoking acquired
language/dialect proficiencies? Is it possible to get the instructions to non-verbal
tasks across to test takers without recourse to one or more particular languages or
dialects? Is it possible to make linguistically and culturally unbiased judgements
about intellectual abilities (including abnormalities, disorders and giftedness) on
the basis of ‘non-verbal’ tasks?
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Anderson, Lorin W.
, editor 1985: Perspectives on school learning: selected
writings of John B. Carroll.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
.
2.
Bachman, Lyle F.1990: Fundamental considerations in language testing.
Oxford: Oxford University Press
.
3.
Bachman, Lyle F.
and
Clark, John L. D.1987:
The measurement of foreign and second language proficiency
. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science490,
20-33
.
4.
Baratz, Joan.1969:
A bidialectal task for determining language proficiency in economically
disadvantaged Negro children
. Child Development40,
889-901
.
5.
Bickley, P. G.
,
Keith, T. Z.
and
Wolfe, L. M.1995:
The three-stratum theory of cognitive-abilities: test of the structure of
intelligence across the life-span
. Intelligence20,
309-328
.
6.
English version in
Binet, A.
and
Simon, T.
, 1911, Development of intelligence in children.
Translated by Elizabeth Kite.
Baltimore, MD: Williams and Williams
.
7.
English version in
Binet, A.
and
Simon, T.
, 1911, Development of intelligence in children.
Translated by Elizabeth Kite.
Baltimore, MD: Williams and Williams
.
8.
Bloomfield, L.1933: Language.
New York: Henry Holt
.
9.
Bochner, S.1996:
The learning strategies of bilingual versus monolingual students
. The British Journal of Educational Psychology66,
83-89
.
10.
Bruner, J. S.1975:
From communication to language: a psychological perspective
. Cognition3,
255-287
.
11.
Also in
Allen J. P. B.
and
Campbell R. N.
, editors, 1972: Teaching English as a second language: a book
of readings.
New York: McGraw Hill
, 313-320.
12.
Carroll, J. B.1983: Psychometric theory and language testing. In
Oller, J. W. Jr.
, editor, Issues in language testing research.
Rowley, MA: Newbury House
, 80-107.
13.
Carroll, J. B.1993: Factors of cognitive ability.
New York: Cambridge University Press
.
14.
Carroll, J. B.
,
Carton, A. S.
and
Wilds, C. B.1959: An investigation of ‘cloze’ items in the
measurement of achievement in foreign languages.
Cambridge, MA: Graduate School of Education,
Harvard University, Laboratory for Research in Instruction, ERIC ED 021-513
.
15.
Cattell, R. B.
and
Cattell, A. K. S.1933-73: Culture fair intelligence test.
Urbana-Champaign, IL: Institute for Personality
and Ability Testing
.
16.
Cenoz, J.
and
Valencia, J. F.1994:
Additive trilingualism: evidence from the Basque Country
. Applied Psycholinguistics15,
195-207
.
17.
Chafe, W. L.1994: Discourse, consciousness, and time: the flow and displacement
of conscious experience in speaking and writing.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
.
18.
Chamberlain, P.
and
Medeiros-Landurand, P.1991: Practical considerations for the assessment of LEP students
with special needs. In
Hamayan, E.
and
Damico, J. S.
, editors, Limiting bias in the assessment of bilingual students.
Austin, TX: PRO-ED, 111-56
.
19.
Chomsky, N. A.1965: Aspects of the theory of syntax.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
.
20.
Cummins, J.1984: Bilingualism and special education: issues in assessment and
pedagogy.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters
.
21.
Damico, J. S.
,
Oller, J. W., Jr.
and
Storey, M. E.1983:
The diagnosis of language disorders in bilingual children: pragmatic versus
surface-oriented criteria
. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders48,
85-394
.
22.
Darcy, N. T.1953:
A review of the literature on the effects of bilingualism upon the
measurement of intelligence
. Journal of Genetic Psychology82,
21-57
.
23.
Darcy, N. T.1963:
Bilingualism and the measurement of intelligence: review of a decade of research
. Journal of Genetic Psychology103,
259-282
.
24.
Diaz, R.1983: Thought and two languages: the impact of bilingualism on
cognitive development. In
Gordon E. W.
, editor, Review of research in education. Volume 10.
Washington DC: American Educational Research Association
, 23-54.
25.
Ebbinghaus, H.1897:
Über eine neue Methode zur Prüfung geistiger
Fähigkeiten und ihre Anwendung bei Schulkindern
. Zeitschrift für angewandte Psychologie13,
401-459
.
26.
Figueroa, R. A.1989:
Psychological testing of linguistic-minority students: knowledge gaps and regulations
. Exceptional Children56,
145-153
.
27.
Finocchiaro, M.1964: English as a second language: from theory to practice.
New York: Regents Publishing
.
28.
Gardner, H.1993a: Frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligences.
New York: Basic Books
.
29.
Gardner, H.1993b: Multiple intelligences: the theory in practice.
New York: Basic Books
.
30.
Gartner, A.
,
Greer, C.
and
Reissman, F.
, editors, 1974: The new assault on equality: IQ and social
stratification.
New York: Harper and Row
.
31.
Gersten, R.
and
Woodward, J.1994:
The language-minority students and special education: issues, trends, and paradoxes
. Exceptional Children60,
310-322
.
32.
Givón, T.1984: Syntax: a functional-typological introduction. Volume 1.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins
.
33.
Givón, T.1990: Syntax: a functional-typological introduction. Volume 2.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins
.
34.
Gonzalez, V.
,
Brusca-Vega, R.
and
Yawkey, T.
, editors, 1997: Assessment and instruction of culturally and
linguistically diverse students with or at-risk of learning problems.
Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon
.
35.
Gordon, R. A.1980: Labeling theory, mental retardation, and public policy:
Larry P. and other developments since 1974. In
Gove W. R.
, editor, The labeling of deviance.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage
.
36.
Guilford, J. P.1967: The nature of human intelligence.
New York: McGraw Hill
.
37.
Hakuta, K.1986: Mirror of language.
Rowley, MA: Newbury House
.
38.
Hakuta, K.1987:
Degree of bilingualism and cognitive ability in mainland Puerto Rican children
. Child Development58,
1372-1388
.
39.
Hakuta, K.
and
Diaz, R.1985: The relationship between degree of bilingualism and
cognitive ability: a critical discussion and some new longitudinal
data. In
Nelson K. E.
, editor, Children’s language. Volume 5.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
, 319-344.
40.
Halliday, M. A. K.1985: An introduction to functional grammar.
London: Edward Arnold
.
41.
Hamayan, E. V.
and
Damico, J. S.1991: Limiting bias in the assessment of bilingual students.
Austin, TX: PRO-ED
.
42.
Harris, D. P.1969: Testing English as a second language.
New York: McGraw Hill
.
43.
Harris, D. P.1985:
Some forerunners of cloze procedure
. Modern Language Journal69,
367-376
.
44.
Harris, Z.1951: Structural linguistics.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
.
45.
Hayes, T. L.1998: Review of the Mill Hill Vocabulary Scale by Theodore L.
Hayes. In
Impara J. C.
and
Plake B. S.
, editors, The thirteenth mental measurements yearbook.
Lincoln, NE: The Buros Institute of Mental
Measurements, University of Nebraska Press
, 661-662.
46.
Hayes-Brown, Z.1984: Linguistic and communicative assessment of bilingual
children. In
Rivera C.
, editor, Placement procedures in bilingual education: educational policy
and issues.
Oxford: Oxford University Press
, 40-105.
47.
Herrnstein, R. J.1973: IQ in the meritocracy.
Boston, MA: Atlantic-Little Brown
.
48.
Herrnstein, R. J.
and
Murray, C.1994: The bell curve: intelligence and class structure in American
life.
New York: Free Press
.
49.
Horn, J. L.1988: Thinking about human abilities. In
Nesselroade J. R.
and
Cattell R. B.
, editors, Handbook of multivariate experimental psychology.
New York: Plenum
, 645-685.
50.
Horn, J. L.
and
Cattell, R. B.1966:
Refinement of the theory of fluid and crystalized intelligence
. Journal of Educational Psychology57,
235-270
.
51.
Hsieh, S. L. J.
and
Tori, C. D.1993:
Neurological and cognitive effects of Chinese-language instruction
. Perceptual and Motor Skills77,
1071-1081
.
52.
Jacoby, R.
and
Glauberman, N.
, editors, 1995: The bell curve debate: history, documents,
opinions.
New York: Random House
.
53.
Jarvis, L. H.
,
Danks, J. H.
, and
Merriman, W. E.1995:
The effect of bilingualism on cognitive-ability: a test of the level of
bilingualism hypothesis
: Applied Psycholinguistics15(2),
195-207
.
54.
Jensen, A. R.1969.
How much can we boost IQ and scholastic achievement
? Harvard Educational Review39,
1-123
.
55.
Jensen, A. R.1974:
How biased are culture-loaded tests
? Genetic Psychology Monographs90,
185-244
.
56.
Jensen, A. R.1980: Bias in mental testing.
New York: Free Press
.
57.
Jensen, A. R.1984: Test bias: concepts and criticisms, in
Reynolds and Brown
(1984: 507-586).
58.
Jensen, A. R.1995: The differences are real. In
Jacoby and Glauberman
(1995: 617-639).
59.
Jitendra, A. K.
and
Rohena-Diaz, E.1996:
Language assessment of students who are linguistically diverse: why a
discrete approach is not the answer
. School Psychology Review25,
40-56
.
60.
Kamin, L.1995: The pioneers of IQ testing. In
Jacoby and Glauberman
, (1995: 476-509).
61.
Labov, W.1968: A study of the nonstandard English of Negro and Puerto Rican
speakers in New York City: cooperative research project no 3288.
New York: Columbia University
.
62.
Lado, R.1961: Language testing: the construction and use of foreign language
tests. A teacher’s book.
London: Longman
.
63.
Lakoff, G.1987: Women, fire, and dangerous things: what categories reveal
about the mind.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
.
64.
Langacker, R. V.1987: Foundations of cognitive grammar.
Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press
.
65.
Luria, A. R.1966: Higher cortical functions in man.
New York: Basic Books
.
66.
Luria, A. R.
and
Yudovich, I. F.1959: Speech and the development of mental processes in the child:
an experimental investigation.
London: Staples
.
67.
Mercer, J. R.1973: Labeling the retarded.
Berkeley, CA: University of California Press
.
68.
Mercer, J. R.1984: What is a racially and culturally nondiscriminatory
test? In
Reynolds and Brown
(1994: 293-356).
69.
Morss, J. R.1985:
‘The primacy of the abstract’: differentiation without
loss as a theory of development - an interview with T.G.R. Bower
. New Ideas in Psychology, 2(3),
257-267
.
70.
Oakland, T. D.
and
Parmelee, R.1985: Mental measurement of minority-group children. In
Wolman B. B.
, editor, Handbook of intelligence: theories, measurements, and
applications.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
, 699-736.
71.
Oller, J. W., Jr.1993: Reasons why some methods work. In
Oller, J. W.
, editor, Methods that work: ideas for literacy and language
teachers.
Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle
, 374-385.
72.
Oller, J. W., Jr.1995:
Adding abstract to formal and content schemata: results of recent work in
Peircean semiotics
. Applied Linguistics16,
273-304
.
73.
Oller, J. W., Jr.1996: How grammatical relations are determined. In
Hoffer B.
, editor, The 22nd LACUS forum.
Chapel Hill, NC: LACUS
, 37-88.
74.
Oller, J. W., Jr.1997:
Monoglottosis: what’s wrong with the idea of the IQ meritocracy
and its racy cousins
. Applied Linguistics18(4),
467-507
.
75.
Oller, J. W., Jr.
and
Chavez, M.
1997:
A closer look at non-verbal IQ tests
. Poster presented at the conference Cognitive Science,
Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA.
76.
Oller, J. W., Jr.
,
Choe, Y.
and
Kim, K.In press: Can instructions to non-verbal IQ tests be given in pantomime?
Additional applications of a general theory of signs
. Semiotica.
77.
Oller, J.W., Jr., Kim, K. and Choe, Y. In progress: Applying a general theory
of signs to tests of language (verbal) and non-verbal abilities. Unpublished
manuscript, Department of Communicative Disorders, University of Louisiana,
Lafayette, LA. Available from the author.
78.
Oller, J.W., Jr., Kim, K., Choe, Y., and Jarvis, L.H. In progress: Testing
relations between language (verbal) and non-verbal abilities in children and adults
acquiring a nonprimary language. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Communicative
Disorders, University of Louisiana, Lafayette, LA. Available from the author.
79.
Oller, J. W., Jr.
and
Perkins, K.
, editors. 1978: Language in education: testing the
tests.
Rowley, MA: Newbury House
.
80.
Ortiz, A. A.1997:
Learning disabilities occurring concomitantly with linguistic differences
. Journal of Learning Disabilities30,
321-332
.
81.
Ortiz, A. A.
and
Yates, J. R.1983:
Incidence of exceptionality among Hispanics: implications for manpower planning
. NABE Journal7,
41-54
.
82.
Paikeday, T. M.1985:
May I kill the native speaker
? TESOL Quarterly19,
390-395
.
83.
Peal, E.
and
Lambert, W.1962:
The relation of bilingualism to intelligence
. Psychological Monographs76,
1-23
.
84.
Piaget, J.1947: The psychology of intelligence.
Totowa, NJ: Littlefield Adams
.
85.
Piaget, J.1970: Genetic epistemology.
New York: Columbia University Press
.
86.
Raven, J.C. 1936: Mental tests used in genetic studies: the performances of
related individuals in tests mainly eductive [non-verbal] and mainly reproductive
[verbal]. MSc thesis, University of London.
87.
Raven, J. C.
. 1962: Coloured progressive matrices.
Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services
.
88.
Raven, J. C.
and
Court, J. H.1938-1983: Raven progressive matrices.
New York: H.K. Lewis, distributed by the
Psychological Corporation; Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
.
89.
Raven, J.
,
Raven, J. C.
, and
Court, J. H.1996: Raven manual: section 1, general overview. 1995edition of text.
Oxford: Oxford Psychologists Press
.
90.
Reynolds, C. R.
and
Brown, R. T.
, editors, 1984: Perspectives on bias in mental testing.
New York: Plenum
.
91.
Rivera, C.
and
Simich, C.1981:
Issues in the assessment of language proficiency of language minority students
. NABE: The Journal for the Association of Bilingual Education6,
19-39
.
92.
Shepard, L. A.
,
Smith, M. L.
and
Vojir, C. P.1983:
Characteristics of pupils identified as learning disabled
. The Journal of Special Education16,
73-85
.
93.
Simich-Dudgeon, C.
, editor, 1992: Proceedings of the second national research symposium
on limited English proficient student issues: focus on evaluation and
measurement. Volumes 1-2. Washington DC: US Department of
Education, Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Language Affairs.
94.
Slobin, D. I.
and
Welsh, C. A.1973: Elicited imitation as a research tool in developmental
psycholinguistics. In
Ferguson C. A.
and
Slobin D. I.
, editors, Studies of child language development.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston
, 462-465.
95.
Smith, M. D.
and
Damico, J. S.
, editors, 1996: Childhood language disorders.
New York: Thieme Medical
.
96.
Spearman, C. E.1904:
General intelligence, objectively determined and measured
. American Journal of Psychology15,
201-292
.
97.
Sternberg, R. J.1996:
Myths, countermyths, and truths about intelligence
. Educational Researcher25,
11-16
.
98.
Swain, M.
,
Dumas, G.
and
Naiman, N.1974:
Alternatives to spontaneous speech: Elicited translation and imitation as
indicators of second language competence
. Working Papers on Bilingualism: Special Issue on Language
Acquisition Studies3,
68-79
.
99.
Thelen, E.
and
Smith, L. B.1994: A dynamic systems approach to the development of cognition and
action.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
.
100.
Thurstone, L. L.
and
Thurstone, T. G.1941: Factorial studies of intelligence.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
.
101.
Valdés, G.
and
Figueroa, R. A.1994: Bilingualism and testing: a special case of bias.
Norwood, NJ: Ablex
.
102.
Valette, R.1964:
The use of dictée in the French language classroom
. Modern Language Journal39,
431-434
.
103.
Vigil-Colet, A.
,
Perez-Olle, J.
and
Fernandez, M.1997:
The relationships of basic information processing measures with fluid and
crystalized intelligence
. Personality and Individual Differences23,
55-65
.
104.
Vygotsky, L. S. ca.1930-35: Mind in society: the development of higher psychological
processes. English edition, 1978, edited and translated by
Cole, M.
,
John-Steiner, V.
,
Scribner, S.
and
Souberman, E.
,
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
. (Page references in the text are to the latter.)
105.
Vygotsky, L. S. ca.1934: Language and thought. English edition edited,
1962, and translated by
Hanfmann, E.
and
Vakar, G.
,
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
. (Page references in the text are to the latter.)
106.
Wechsler, D.1974: Manual for the Wechsler intelligence scale for children:
revised.
New York: Psychological Corporation
.
107.
Yerkes, R. M.
, editor. 1921: Psychological testing in the United States
Army: National Academy of Sciences. Volume XV.
Washington DC: Government Printing Office
.
108.
Yoakum, C. S.
and
Yerkes, R. M.
, editors. 1920: Army mental tests.
New York: Henry Holt
.
