Loneliness is associated with various negative mental and physical health outcomes. Studies on factors associated with loneliness can inform its early screening and prevention. However, little is known about what factors are associated with loneliness among Chinese young children. The present study aimed to identify the various loneliness-associated factors (demographic, personal, school-related, and family-related) among primary school students in Hong Kong. A total of 258 students and their parents from six primary schools in Hong Kong completed an online anonymous survey from June to October 2020. Loneliness (i.e., UCLA Loneliness Scale 3 total score ≥ 3) was reported by 14% of the students. Multivariable mixed effects logistic regression suggested loneliness was positively associated with a lower happiness level at school, poorer independence skills, a lower level of satisfaction with parents, and lower child-rearing expenditure. There was no clustering effect of school on the associations. The current study found important demographic, personal, school-related, and family-related factors of loneliness among school-age children, with caution suggested in their interpretation considering the cross-sectional nature of this study. Future studies with a larger sample, preferably longitudinal ones, are needed to substantiate these associations and uncover their underlying mechanisms.
AmbrosettiJ.MacheretL.FollietA.WullschlegerA.AmerioA.AgugliaA.SerafiniG.PradaP.KaiserS.BondolfiG.SarasinF.CostanzaA. (2021). Psychiatric emergency admissions during and after COVID-19 lockdown: Short-term impact and long-term implications on mental health. BMC Psychiatry, 21(1), 465. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03469-8
2.
ArslanG. (2021). School belongingness, well-being, and mental health among adolescents: Exploring the role of loneliness. Australian Journal of Psychology, 73(1), 70–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530.2021.1904499
3.
AsherS. R.PaquetteJ. A. (2003). Loneliness and peer relations in childhood. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(3), 75–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01233
4.
BarretoM.VictorC.HammondC.EcclesA.RichinsM. T.QualterP. (2021). Loneliness around the world: Age, gender, and cultural differences in loneliness. Personality and Individual Differences, 169(3), 110066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110066
5.
BartelsM.CacioppoJ. T.HudziakJ. J.BoomsmaD. I. (2008). Genetic and environmental contributions to stability in loneliness throughout childhood. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 147(3), 385–391. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.30608
6.
BayatN.FokkemaT.MujakovicS.RuiterR. A. (2021). Contextual correlates of loneliness in adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 127(3), 106083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2021.106083
7.
BianchiS. M.CohenP.RaleyS.NomaguchiK. (2004). Inequality in parental investment in child-rearing: Expenditures, time, and health. In NeckermanK. (Ed.), Social inequality (pp. 189–220). Russell Sage Foundation Press.
DurlakJ. A.WeissbergR. P.DymnickiA. B.TaylorR. D.SchellingerK. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Development, 82(1), 405–432. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x
11.
EreesS. (2022). Effects of dichotomizing continuous outcome on efficiencies of measures of explained variation in logistic regression: Simulation study and application. Communications in Statistics: Case Studies, Data Analysis and Applications, 8(4), 663–681. https://doi.org/10.1080/23737484.2022.2139019
12.
FarrokhiF.Mahmoudi-HamidabadA. (2012). Rethinking convenience sampling: Defining quality criteria. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(4), 784. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.2.4.784-792
13.
FülöpF.BőtheB.GálÉ.CachiaJ. Y. A.DemetrovicsZ.OroszG. (2020). A two-study validation of a single-item measure of relationship satisfaction: RAS-1. Current Psychology, 41(4), 2109–2121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00727-y
14.
HarrisR. A.QualterP.RobinsonS. J. (2013). Loneliness trajectories from middle childhood to pre-adolescence: Impact on perceived health and sleep disturbance. Journal of Adolescence, 36(6), 1295–1304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.12.009
15.
HeinrichL. M.GulloneE. (2006). The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(6), 695–718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.04.002
16.
HenningG.Segel-KarpasD.BjälkebringP.BergA. I. (2021). Autonomy and loneliness - longitudinal within- and between-person associations among Swedish older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 26(12), 2416–2423. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2021.2000937
17.
HermanK. C.Hickmon-RosaJ. E.ReinkeW. M. (2018). Empirically derived profiles of teacher stress, burnout, self-efficacy, and coping and associated student outcomes. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 20(2), 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300717732066
18.
HughesM. E.WaiteL. J.HawkleyL. C.CacioppoJ. T. (2004). A short scale for measuring loneliness in large surveys: Results from two population-based studies. Research on Aging, 26(6), 655–672. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027504268574
19.
JoshiA.KaleS.ChandelS.PalD. K. (2015). Likert scale: Explored and explained. British Journal of Applied Science & Technology, 7(4), 396–403. https://doi.org/10.9734/bjast/2015/14975
20.
KoenigL. J.AbramsR. F. (1999). Adolescent loneliness and adjustment: A focus on gender differences. In RotenbergK. J.HymelS. (Eds.), Loneliness in childhood and adolescence (pp. 296–322). Cambridge University Press.
21.
Hong Kong Education Bureau. (2021). Student enrolment statistics, 2020/21 (Kindergartens, primary and secondary schools). Hong Kong Education Bureau
KuoB. C. H.HuangS.LiX.LinD. (2021). Self-esteem, resilience, social support, and acculturative stress as predictors of loneliness in Chinese internal migrant children: A model-testing longitudinal study. Journal of Psychology, 155(4), 387–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2021.1891854
24.
LaiE. S.KwokC. L.WongP. W.FuK. W.LawY. W.YipP. S. (2016). The effectiveness and sustainability of a universal school-based programme for preventing depression in Chinese adolescents: A follow-up study using quasi-experimental design. PLoS One, 11(2), e0149854. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0149854
25.
LauS.ChanD. W.LauP. S. (1999). Facets of loneliness and depression among Chinese children and adolescents. The Journal of Social Psychology, 139(6), 713–729. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224549909598251
26.
LempinenL.JunttilaN.SouranderA. (2018). Loneliness and friendships among eight-year-old children: Time-trends over a 24-year period. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 59(2), 171–179. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12807
27.
LimM. H.EresR.VasanS. (2020). Understanding loneliness in the twenty-first century: An update on correlates, risk factors, and potential solutions. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 55(7), 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-020-01889-7
28.
LiuC. H.ZhangE.WongG. T. F.HyunS.HahmH. C. (2020). Factors associated with depression, anxiety, and PTSD symptomatology during the COVID-19 pandemic: Clinical implications for U.S. young adult mental health. Psychiatry Research, 290, 113172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113172
29.
LoadesM. E.ChatburnE.Higson-SweeneyN.ReynoldsS.ShafranR.BrigdenA.LinneyC.McManusM. N.BorwickC.CrawleyE. (2020). Rapid systematic review: The impact of social isolation and loneliness on the mental health of children and adolescents in the context of COVID-19. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 59(11), 1218–1239.e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2020.05.009
30.
LykesV. A.KemmelmeierM. (2014). What predicts loneliness? Cultural difference between individualistic and collectivistic societies in Europe. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45(3), 468–490. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022113509881
MarkusH. R.KitayamaS. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224–253. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224
PalikaraO.Castro-KempS.GaonaC.EirinakiV. (2021). The mediating role of school belonging in the relationship between socioemotional well-being and loneliness in primary school age children. Australian Journal of Psychology, 73(1), 24–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530.2021.1882270
35.
PerlmanD.PeplauL. A. (1981). Toward a social psychology of loneliness. Personal Relationships, 3, 31–56.
36.
QualterP.BrownS. L.MunnP.RotenbergK. J. (2010). Childhood loneliness as a predictor of adolescent depressive symptoms: An 8-year longitudinal study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 19(6), 493–501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-009-0059-y
37.
QualterP.BrownS. L.RotenbergK. J.VanhalstJ.HarrisR. A.GoossensL.BangeeM.MunnP. (2013). Trajectories of loneliness during childhood and adolescence: Predictors and health outcomes. Journal of Adolescence, 36(6), 1283–1293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.01.005
38.
QualterP.VanhalstJ.HarrisR.Van RoekelE.LodderG.BangeeM.MaesM.VerhagenM. (2015). Loneliness across the life span. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 250–264. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615568999
39.
RokachA.Sha’kedA. (2013). Loneliness in schools: Teachers, students and their peers. Psychology and Education, 50(3-4), 89–97.
40.
RönkäA. R.SunnariV.RautioA.KoiranenM.TaanilaA. (2017). Associations between school liking, loneliness and social relations among adolescents: Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1986 study. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 22(1), 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2015.1136659
41.
SchinkaK. C.van DulmenM. H.BossarteR.SwahnM. (2012). Association between loneliness and suicidality during middle childhood and adolescence: Longitudinal effects and the role of demographic characteristics. Journal of Psychology, 146(1–2), 105–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2011.584084
42.
SchinkaK. C.van DulmenM. H.MataA. D.BossarteR.SwahnM. (2013). Psychosocial predictors and outcomes of loneliness trajectories from childhood to early adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 36(6), 1251–1260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.08.002
43.
ShekD. T.ZhuX. (2020). Promotion of thriving among Hong Kong Chinese adolescents: Evidence from eight-wave data. Research on Social Work Practice, 30(8), 870–883. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731520947156
44.
SolmiM.VeroneseN.GalvanoD.FavaroA.OstinelliE. G.NoventaV.FavarettoE.TudorF.FinessiM.ShinJ. I.SmithL.KoyanagiA.CesterA.BolzettaF.CotroneoA.MaggiS.DemurtasJ.De LeoD.TrabucchiM. (2020). Factors associated with loneliness: An umbrella review of observational studies. Journal of Affective Disorders, 271, 131–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.03.075
45.
SorhagenN. S.WursterT. J. (2017). Income within context: Relative income matters for adolescent social satisfaction and mental health. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 58(6), 736–743. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12695
46.
StataCorp. (2019). Stata statistical software: Release 16. StataCorp LLC.
47.
SteptoeA.ShankarA.DemakakosP.WardleJ. (2013). Social isolation, loneliness, and all-cause mortality in older men and women. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110(15), 5797–5801. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1219686110
48.
SuanetB.van TilburgT. G. (2019). Loneliness declines across birth cohorts: The impact of mastery and self-efficacy. Psychology and Aging, 34(8), 1134–1143. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000357
49.
van StadenW. C.CoetzeeK. (2010). Conceptual relations between loneliness and culture. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 23(6), 524–529. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e32833f2ff9
50.
XerxaY.RescorlaL. A.ShanahanL.TiemeierH.CopelandW. E. (2021). Childhood loneliness as a specific risk factor for adult psychiatric disorders. Psychological Medicine, 53(1), 227–235. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291721001422
51.
YanJ.FengX.Schoppe-SullivanS. J. (2018). Longitudinal associations between parent-child relationships in middle childhood and child-perceived loneliness. Journal of Family Psychology, 32(6), 841–847. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000446
52.
YaoZ.PangL.YuH.XiaoH.PengB. (2022). Self-support and loneliness among Chinese primary school students: A moderated mediation model. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 773421. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.773421
53.
YingL.YanQ.ShenX.JiaX.LinC. (2019). Economic pressure and loneliness in migrant children in China: The mediating roles of parent-child communication and parental warmth. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 50(1), 142–149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-018-0827-3
54.
ZhangF.YouZ.FanC.GaoC.CohenR.HsuehY.ZhouZ. (2014). Friendship quality, social preference, proximity prestige, and self-perceived social competence: Interactive influences on children's loneliness. Journal of School Psychology, 52(5), 511–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2014.06.001
55.
ZhengX.ZhangD.LauE. N. S.XuZ.ZhangZ.MoP. K. H.YangX.MakE. C. W.WongS. Y. S. (2022). Primary school students’ online learning during Coronavirus Disease 2019: Factors associated with satisfaction, perceived effectiveness, and preference. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 784826. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.784826
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
