Asian individuals in the United States have experienced heightened racial discrimination during the COVID-19 pandemic, which may reduce positive relationship processes and damage intimate relationships, including their sexual behaviors and quality. Guided by the chilling effect and Interpersonal Exchange Model of Sexual Satisfaction, this study explores how COVID-19-related anti-Asian discrimination moderates the relationships between sexual relationship power, sexual self-disclosure, and sexual satisfaction. Results (N = 294 partnered Asian adults) showed that as racial discrimination increased, the positive relationship between sexual relationship power and sexual self-disclosure decreased. As people experienced more racial discrimination, the positive effects of sexual self-disclosure on sexual satisfaction also decreased. Sexual power positively predicted sexual satisfaction via sexual communication, only when COVID-19-related discrimination was low or moderate. This study demonstrates how racial discrimination interacts with relational factors to predict Asian individuals’ sexual communication and, in turn, sexual satisfaction. More public attention and efforts should be devoted to combating anti-Asian discrimination during the pandemic and beyond.
AidaY.FalboT. (1991). Relationships between marital satisfaction, resources, and power strategies. Sex Roles, 24(1), 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00288702
2.
AlvarezC.VillarruelA. (2015). Association of gender norms, relationship and intrapersonal variables, and acculturation with sexual communication among young adult Latinos. Research in Nursing & Health, 38(2), 121–132. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.21645
3.
BentleyC. G.GalliherR. V.FergusonT. J. (2007). Associations among aspects of interpersonal power and relationship functioning in adolescent romantic couples. Sex Roles, 57(7–8), 483–495. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9280-7
4.
BrezsnyakM.WhismanM. A. (2004). Sexual Desire and relationship functioning: The effects of marital satisfaction and power. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 30(3), 199–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/00926230490262393
5.
BrottoL. A.JabsF.BrownN.MilaniS.ZdaniukB. (2022). Impact of COVID-19 related stress on sexual desire and behavior in a canadian sample. International Journal of Sexual Health, 34(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2021.1947932
6.
BruhinE. (2003). Power communication and condom use: Patterns of HIV-relevant sexual risk management in heterosexual relationships. AIDS Care, 15(3), 389–401. https://doi.org/10.1080/0954012031000105441
7.
ByersE. S. (1999). The interpersonal Exchange model of sexual satisfaction: Implications for sex therapy with couples. Canadian Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 33(2), 95–111.
8.
ByersE. S.DemmonsS. (1999). Sexual satisfaction and sexual self‐disclosure within dating relationships. The Journal of Sex Research, 36(2), 180–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499909551983
9.
CheahC. S. L.WangC.RenH.ZongX.ChoH. S.XueX. (2020). COVID-19 racism and mental health in Chinese American families. Pediatrics, 146(5), Article e2020021816. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-021816
10.
Chia-Chen ChenA.SzalachaL. A.MenonU. (2014). Perceived discrimination and its associations with mental health and substance use among Asian American and Pacific Islander undergraduate and graduate students. Journal of American College Health, 62(6), 390–398. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2014.917648
11.
ClovenD. H.RoloffM. E. (1993). The chilling effect of aggressive potential on the expression of complaints in intimate relationships. Communications Monographs, 60(3), 199–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637759309376309
12.
CocciA.GiuntiD.TonioniC.CacciamaniG.TelliniR.PolloniG.CitoG.PresicceF.Di MauroM.MinerviniA.CiminoS.RussoG. I. (2020). Love at the time of the COVID-19 pandemic: Preliminary results of an online survey conducted during the quarantine in Italy. International Journal of Impotence Research, 32(5), 556–557. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41443-020-0305-x
ConnellR. W. (1987). Gender and power. Stanford University Press.
15.
ConroyA. A.McGrathN.van RooyenH.HosegoodV.JohnsonM. O.FritzK.MarrA.NgubaneT.DarbesL. A. (2016). Power and the association with relationship quality in South African couples: Implications for HIV/AIDS interventions. Social Science & Medicine, 153, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.01.035.
16.
CroucherS. M.NguyenT.RahmaniD. (2020). Prejudice toward Asian Americans in the COVID-19 Pandemic: The effects of social media use in the United States. Frontiers in Communication, 5, 39. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2020.00039.
17.
DhananiL. Y.FranzB. (2020). Unexpected public health consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic: A national survey examining anti-Asian attitudes in the USA. International Journal of Public Health, 65(6), 747–754. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-020-01440-0
18.
DíazR. M.AyalaG.BeinE.HenneJ.MarinB. V. (2001). The impact of homophobia, poverty, and racism on the mental health of gay and bisexual Latino men: Findings from 3 US cities. American Journal of Public Health, 91(6), 927–932. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.91.6.927
19.
DöringN. (2020). How is the COVID-19 pandemic affecting our sexualities? An overview of the current media narratives and research hypotheses. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(8), 2765–2778. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01790-z
20.
DrigotasS. M.RusbultC. E.VeretteJ. (1999). Level of commitment, mutuality of commitment, and couple well-being. Personal Relationships, 6(3), 389–409. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.1999.tb00199.x
21.
DunbarN. E. (2004). Theory in progress: Dyadic power theory: Constructing a communication-based theory of relational power. Journal of Family Communication, 4(3-4), 235–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/15267431.2004.9670133
22.
EpsteinN. B.ChenF.Beyder-KamjouI. (2005). Relationship standards and marital satisfaction in Chinese and American couples. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 31(1), 59–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.2005.tb01543.x
GoverA. R.HarperS. B.LangtonL. (2020). Anti-Asian hate crime during the COVID-19 pandemic: Exploring the reproduction of inequality. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(4), 647–667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09545-1
25.
Gray-LittleB.BurksN. (1983). Power and satisfaction in marriage: A review and critique. Psychological Bulletin, 93(3), 513–538. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.93.3.513
26.
HahmH. C.HaY.ScottJ. C.WongchaiV.ChenJ. A.LiuC. H. (2021a). Perceived COVID-19-related anti-Asian discrimination predicts post traumatic stress disorder symptoms among Asian and Asian American young adults. Psychiatry Research, 303, 114084. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2021.114084
27.
HahmH. C.Xavier HallC. D.GarciaK. T.CavallinoA.HaY.CozierY. C.LiuC. (2021b). Experiences of COVID-19-related anti-Asian discrimination and affective reactions in a multiple race sample of U.S. young adults. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 1563. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11559-1
28.
HayesA. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
29.
HicksM. R.KoganS. M. (2019). Racial discrimination, protective processes, and sexual risk behaviors among Black young males. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48(2), 507–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1341-1
30.
JacobL.SmithL.ButlerL.BarnettY.GrabovacI.McDermottD.ArmstrongN.YakkundiA.TullyM. A. (2020). Challenges in the practice of sexual medicine in the time of COVID-19 in the United Kingdom. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 17(7), 1229–1236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2020.05.001
KörnerR.SchützA. (2021). Power in romantic relationships: How positional and experienced power are associated with relationship quality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 38(9), 2653–2677. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075211017670
33.
LauJ. T.YangX.WangQ.ChengY.TsuiH. Y.MuiL. W.KimJ. H. (2006). Gender power and marital relationship as predictors of sexual dysfunction and sexual satisfaction among young married couples in rural China: A population-based study. Urology, 67(3), 579–585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2005.09.039
34.
LavnerJ. A.BartonA. W.BryantC. M.BeachS. R. H. (2018). Racial discrimination and relationship functioning among African American couples. Journal of Family Psychology, 32(5), 686–691. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000415
35.
LawranceK.ByersE. S. (1998). Interpersonal Exchange model of sexual satisfaction Questionnaire. In DavisC. M.YarberW. L.BausermanR.SchreerG.DavisS. L. (Eds.), Sexuality-related measures: A compendium (2nd ed., pp. 514–519). Sage.
36.
LehmillerJ. J.GarciaJ. R.GesselmanA. N.MarkK. P. (2021). Less sex, but more sexual diversity: Changes in sexual behavior during the COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic. Leisure Sciences, 43(1–2), 295–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2020.1774016
37.
LiW.LiG.XinC.WangY.YangS. (2020a). Challenges in the practice of sexual medicine in the time of COVID-19 in China. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 17(7), 1225–1228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2020.04.380
38.
LiG.TangD.SongB.WangC.QunshanS.XuC.GengH.WuH.HeX.CaoY. (2020b). Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on partner relationships and sexual and reproductive health: Cross-sectional, online survey study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(8), Article e20961. https://doi.org/10.2196/20961
39.
LiY.SampJ. A. (2019a). Communication efficacy as a mechanism for the chilling effect on complaint avoidance: A cross-cultural comparison of American and Chinese romantic relationships. Journal of Intercultural Communication, 1(49). https://www.immi.se/intercultural/nr49/yachao.html.
40.
LiY.SampJ. A. (2019b). Sexual relationship power, safer sexual communication, and condom use: A comparison of heterosexual young men and women. Western Journal of Communication, 83(1), 58–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2017.1398835
41.
LiY.SampJ. A. (2021a). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on same-sex couples’ conflict avoidance, relational quality, and mental health. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 38(6), 1819–1843. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075211006199
42.
LiY.SampJ. A. (2021b). Predictors and outcomes of LGB individuals’ coming out to heterosexual romantic partners. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 49(1), 24–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2020.1849769
43.
LuetkeM.HenselD.HerbenickD.RosenbergM. (2020). Romantic relationship conflict due to the COVID-19 pandemic and changes in intimate and sexual behaviors in a nationally representative sample of American adults. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 46(8), 747–762. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2020.1810185
44.
LuftH.KeW.TrifolL.HalpernM.LarsonE. (2019). Sexual Relationship power and safe sex communication among partnered women in the Dominican Republic. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 31(1), 28–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659619840413
45.
MacNeilS.ByersE. S. (2005). Dyadic assessment of sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction in heterosexual dating couples. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 22(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407505050942
46.
MacNeilS.ByersE. S. (2009). Role of sexual self-disclosure in the sexual satisfaction of long-term heterosexual couples. The Journal of Sex Research, 46(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490802398399
47.
MerollaA. J.OtmarC.HernandezC. R. (2021). Day-to-day relational life during the COVID-19 pandemic: Linking mental health, daily relational experiences, and end-of-day outlook. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 38(8), 2350–2375. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075211020137
48.
MizunoY.BorkowfC.MillettG. A.BinghamT.AyalaG.StueveA. (2012). Homophobia and racism experienced by Latino men who have sex with men in the United States: Correlates of exposure and associations with HIV risk behaviors. AIDS Behavior, 16(3), 724–735. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-011-9967-1
49.
PanS. W.ShenG. C.LiuC.HsiJ. H. (2021a). Coronavirus stigmatization and psychological distress among Asians in the United States. Ethnicity & Health, 26(1), 110–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2020.1849570
50.
PanS.YangC-C.TsaiJ.-Y.DongC. (2021b). Experience of and worry about discrimination, social media use, and depression among asians in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic: Coss-sectional survey study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(9), Aricle e29024. https://doi.org/10.2196/29024
51.
PascoalP. M.CarvalhoJ.RaposoC. F.AlmeidaJ.BeatoA. F. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 on sexual health: A preliminary framework based on a qualitative study with clinical sexologists. Sexual Medicine, 9(1), 100299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esxm.2020.100299
52.
PietromonacoP. R.OverallN. C. (2021). Applying relationship science to evaluate how the COVID-19 pandemic may impact couples’ relationships. American Psychologist, 76(3), 438–450. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000714
53.
PulerwitzJ.GortmakerS. L.DeJongW. (2000). Measuring sexual relationship power in HIV/STD research. Sex Roles, 42(7), 637–660. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007051506972
54.
RandallA. K.LeonG.BasiliE.MartosT.BoigerM.BaldiM.HockerL.KlineK.MasturziA.AryeeteyR.Bar-KalifaE.BoonS. D.BotellaL.BurkeT.CarnelleyK. B.CarrA.DashA.FitrianaM.GainesS. O.ChiarolanzaC. (2021). Coping with global uncertainty: Perceptions of COVID-19 psychological distress, relationship quality, and dyadic coping for romantic partners across 27 countries. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 39(1), 3–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075211034236
55.
ReedE.SantanaM. C.BowlegL.WellesS. L.HorsburghC. R.RajA. (2013). Experiences of racial discrimination and relation to sexual risk for HIV among a sample of urban black and African American men. Journal of Urban Health, 90(2), 314–322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-012-9690-x
56.
RehmanU. S.RelliniA. H.FallisE. (2011). The Importance of sexual self‐disclosure to sexual satisfaction and functioning in committed relationships. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 8(11), 3108–3115. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2011.02439.x
57.
RobertsM. E.GibbonsF. X.GerrardM.WengC.-Y.MurryV. M.SimonsL. G.SimonsR. L.LorenzF. O. (2012). From racial discrimination to risky sex: Prospective relations involving peers and parents. Developmental Psychology, 48(1), 89–102. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025430
58.
RodriguesD. L.LehmillerJ. J. (2022). COVID-19 and sexual desire: Perceived fear is associated with enhanced relationship functioning. The Journal of Sex Research, 59(4), 403–412. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2021.1966359
59.
RoloffM. E.ClovenD. H. (1990). The chilling effect in interpersonal relationships: The reluctance to speak one’s mind. In CahnD. (Ed.), Intimates in conflict: A communication perspective (pp. 49–76). Lawrence Erlbaum.
60.
SampJ. A.SolomonD. H. (2001). Coping with problematic events in dating relationships: The influence of dependence power on severity appraisals and decisions to communicate. Western Journal of Communication, 65(2), 138–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570310109374697
61.
SmithM. (2021). The association between sexual and relationship satisfaction: Mediated by perceptions of relational power. [Unpublished Master’s thesis]. Auburn University.
62.
SmithN. A.SabatI. E.MartinezL. R.WeaverK.XuS. (2015). A convenient solution: Using MTurk to sample from hard-to-reach populations. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 8(2), 220–228. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2015.29
63.
SprecherS.FelmleeD. (1997). The Balance of power in romantic heterosexual couples over time from “his” and “her” perspectives. Sex Roles, 37(5), 361–379. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025601423031
64.
TangN.BensmanL.HatfieldE. (2013). Culture and sexual self-disclosure in intimate relationships. Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships, 7(2), 227–245. https://doi.org/10.5964/ijpr.v7i2.141
65.
WaddellN.OverallN. C.ChangV. T.HammondM. D. (2021). Gendered division of labor during a nationwide COVID-19 lockdown: Implications for relationship problems and satisfaction. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 38(6), 1759–1781. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407521996476
66.
WilliamsonH. C. (2020). 2020/12/01Early effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on relationship satisfaction and attributions. Psychological Science, 31(12), 1479–1487. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620972688
67.
WilsonP. A.YoshikawaH. (2004). Experiences of and responses to social discrimination among Asian and Pacific Islander gay men: Their relationship to HIV risk. AIDS Education and Prevention, 16(1), 68–83. https://doi.org/10.1521/aeap.16.1.68.27724
68.
WuC.QianY.WilkesR. (2021). Anti-Asian discrimination and the Asian-white mental health gap during COVID-19. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 44(5), 819–835. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2020.1851739
69.
YangB.LiY.YanK.ChoiY.Bennett-JonesB. (2021). Analyzing U.S. state governments’ COVID-19 homepages during the initial lockdown: Information content and interactivity. Health Communication, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2021.2007574.
70.
YoshikawaH.Alan-David WilsonP.ChaeD. H.ChengJ.-F. (2004). Do Family and friendship networks protect against the influence of discrimination on mental health and HIV risk among Asian and Pacific Islander gay men?AIDS Education and Prevention, 16(1), 84–100. https://doi.org/10.1521/aeap.16.1.84.27719
71.
YukselB.OzgorF. (2020). Effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on female sexual behavior. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 150(1), 98–102. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijgo.13193
72.
YuN.PanS.YangC.-c.TsaiJ.-Y. (2020). Exploring the role of media sources on COVID-19-related discrimination experiences and concerns among Asian people in the United States: Cross-sectional survey study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(11), Article e21684. https://doi.org/10.2196/21684
