In this article we explain how attachment theory characterizes the seeking, receipt, and provision of social support. In the first section, we explain attachment theory's perspective on support-seeking (or attachment behavior) and support-provision (or caregiving behavior). In the second section, we discuss what has been learned about attachment-style differences in perceived support, seeking support, and providing support. In the third section, we consider the empirically documented psychological benefits of receiving support, which we summarize in terms of a broaden-and-build cycle of attachment security. Throughout the article we offer several avenues for future research that can advance our understanding of the cognitive-affective and neural mechanisms underlying social support and the psychological benefits of supportive experiences.
Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1991). Attachment and other affectional bonds across the life cycle. In C. M. Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde, & P. Marris (Eds.), Attachment across the life cycle (pp. 33-51). New York: Routledge.
2.
Ainsworth, M.D.S., Blehar, M.C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: Assessed in the Strange Situation and at home. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
3.
Andersen, S.M., & Chen, S. (2002). The relational self: An interpersonal social-cognitive theory. Psychological Review, 109, 619-645.
4.
Aron, A., & Aron, E. (1986). Love and the expansion of self: Understanding attraction and satisfaction. New York: Hemisphere.
5.
Batson, C.D. (1991). The altruism question: Toward a social-psychological answer. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
6.
Batson, C.D. (in press). Empathy-induced altruistic motivation. In M. Mikulincer & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Prosocial motives, emotions, and behavior . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
7.
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books .
8.
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol. 3. Loss: Sadness and depression. New York: Basic Books .
9.
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books. (Original work published 1969)
10.
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Clinical applications of attachment theory. London: Routledge.
11.
Brennan, K.A., Clark, C.L., & Shaver, P.R. (1998). Self-report measurement of adult attachment: An integrative overview. In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46-76). New York: Guilford Press.
12.
Campbell, L., Simpson, J.A., Boldry, J., & Kashy, D.A. (2005). Perceptions of conflict and support in romantic relationships: The role of attachment anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 510-531.
13.
Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.). (2008). Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press .
14.
Collins, N.L., & Feeney, B.C. (2004). Working models of attachment shape perceptions of social support: Evidence from experimental and observational studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 363-383.
15.
Collins, N.L., Guichard, A.C., Ford, M.B., & Feeney, B.C. (2006). Responding to need in intimate relationships: Normative processes and individual differences. In M. Mikulincer & G. S. Goodman (Eds.), Dynamics of romantic love: Attachment, caregiving, and sex (pp. 149-189). New York: Guilford Press.
16.
Crawford, T.N., Livesley, W.J., Jang, K.L., Shaver, P.R., Cohen, P., & Ganiban, J. (2007). Insecure attachment and personality disorder: A twin study of adults. European Journal of Personality, 21, 191-208.
17.
Feeney, B.C. (2004). A secure base: Responsive support of goal strivings and exploration in adult intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 631-648.
18.
Feeney, B.C. (2007). The dependency paradox in close relationships: Accepting dependence promotes independence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 268-285.
19.
Fraley, R.C., & Davis, K.E. (1997). Attachment formation and transfer in young adults' close friendships and romantic relationships. Personal Relationships , 4, 131-144.
20.
Fraley, R.C., & Shaver, P.R. (2000). Adult romantic attachment: Theoretical developments, emerging controversies, and unanswered questions. Review of General Psychology, 4, 132-154.
21.
Fredrickson, B.L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218-226.
22.
George, C., & Solomon, J. (2008). The caregiving system: A behavioral systems approach to parenting. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 383-416). New York: Guilford Press.
23.
Gillath, O., Shaver, P.R., Baek, J-M., & Chun, D.S. (2008). Genetic correlates of adult attachment style. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.
24.
Gillath, O., Shaver, P.R., & Mikulincer, M. (2005). An attachment-theoretical approach to compassion and altruism. In P. Gilbert (Ed.), Compassion: Conceptualizations, research, and use in psychotherapy (pp. 121-147). London: Brunner-Routledge.
25.
Grossmann, K. E., Grossmann, K., & Waters, E. (Eds.). Attachment from infancy to adulthood: The major longitudinal studies. New York: Guilford Press.
26.
Hazan, C., & Zeifman, D. (1994). Sex and the psychological tether. In K. Bartholomew & D. Perlman (Eds.), Advances in personal relationships: Attachment processes in adulthood (Vol. 5, pp. 151-177). London: Jessica Kingsley.
27.
Hein, G., & Singer, T. (in press). Neuroscience meets social psychology: An integrative approach to human empathy and prosocial behavior. In M. Mikulincer & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Prosocial motives, emotions, and behavior. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association .
28.
Lakey, B., McCabe, K.M., Fisicaro, S.A. & Drew, J.B. (1996). Environmental and personal determinants of support perceptions: Three generalizability studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1270-1280.
29.
Main, M. (1990). Cross-cultural studies of attachment organization: Recent studies, changing methodologies, and the concept of conditional strategies . Human Development, 33, 48-61.
30.
Mikulincer, M., Gillath, O., & Shaver, P.R. (2002). Activation of the attachment system in adulthood: Threat-related primes increase the accessibility of mental representations of attachment figures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 83, 881-895.
31.
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P.R. (2003). The attachment behavioral system in adulthood: Activation, psychodynamics, and interpersonal processes. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 35, pp. 53-152). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
32.
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P.R. (2004). Security-based self-representations in adulthood: Contents and processes. In W. S. Rholes & J. A. Simpson (Eds.), Adult attachment: Theory, research, and clinical implications (pp. 159-195). New York: Guilford Press.
33.
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P.R. (2007a). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. New York: Guilford Press .
34.
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P.R. (2007b). Boosting attachment security to promote mental health, prosocial values, and inter-group tolerance. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 139-156.
35.
Reis, H.T., & Shaver, P.R. (1988). Intimacy as an interpersonal process. In S. Duck (Ed.), Handbook of research in personal relationships (pp. 367-389). London: Wiley.
36.
Rholes, W.S., Simpson, J.A., Campbell, L., & Grich, J. (2001). Adult attachment and the transition to parenthood . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 421-435.
37.
Rogers, C.R. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
38.
Seligman, M.E.P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York: Free Press.
39.
Shaver, P.R., Collins, N.L., & Clark, C.L. (1996). Attachment styles and internal working models of self and relationship partners. In G. J. O. Fletcher & J. Fitness (Eds.), Knowledge structures in close relationships: A social psychological approach (pp. 25-61). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum .
40.
Shaver, P.R., & Mikulincer, M. (2007). Attachment theory and research: Core concepts, basic principles, and conceptual bridges. In A. Kruglanski & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (2nd ed., pp. 650-677). New York: Guilford Press.
41.
Shaver, P.R., & Mikulincer, M. (2008). Augmenting the sense of security in romantic, leader-follower, therapeutic, and group relationships: A relational model of psychological change. In J. P. Forgas & J. Fitness (Eds.), Social relationships: Cognitive, affective, and motivational processes (pp. 55-74). New York: Psychology Press.
42.
Simpson, J.A., & Belsky, J. (2008). Attachment theory within a modern evolutionary framework. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 131-157). New York: Guilford Press.
43.
Singer, T., Seymour, B., O'Doherty, J., Kaube, H., Dolan, R.J., & Frith, C.D. (2004). Empathy for pain involves the affective but not sensory components of pain. Science, 303, 1157-1162.
44.
Slade, A. (2008). The implications of attachment theory and research for adult psychotherapy: Research and clinical perspectives. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
45.
Sroufe, L.A., & Waters, E. (1977). Attachment as an organizational construct. Child Development, 48, 1184-1199.
46.
Trinke, S.J., & Bartholomew, K. (1997). Hierarchies of attachment relationships in young adulthood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 14, 603-625.
47.
Waters, H.S., & Waters, E. (2006). The attachment working models concept: Among other things, we build script-like representations of secure base experiences. Attachment and Human Development, 8, 185-197.
