This study aims to investigate the effect of lockdowns on self-esteem and the locus of control (LoC) of individuals with visual impairments. This research question is important to be answered, as there is no previous research on the topic, and the findings of this study add significant elements to our knowledge on the subject. It is the first time that a study examines the effect of the pandemic on the self-esteem and LoC of individuals with visual impairments. The sample of the research consisted of 321 individuals with visual impairments; 176 of them participated in the pre-COVID period, 50 in the first wave of COVID period, and 95 in the second wave of COVID period. Two research instruments were used: the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Rotter Internal–External LoC Scale. High self-esteem and a more internal LoC are positively associated with the pre-COVID period and negatively associated with first- and second-wave COVID periods. The participants with high self-esteem and internal LoC are most likely males, people with blindness, people who work, people who have a university degree, and people who frequently move independently. However, the individuals with low self-esteem and a more external LoC are most likely older people or people with higher age at onset of visual impairment. The first- and second-wave COVID periods are negatively associated with self-esteem and LoC of individuals with visual impairments.
AlexanderF. E. (1996). Self-concepts of children with visual impairments. Review, 28(1), 35–43.
2.
AngelovaN. V. (2016). Locus of control and its relationship with some social-demographic factors. Psychological Thought, 9(2), 248–258. https://doi.org/10.23668/psycharchives.1987
3.
AugestadL. B. (2017). Self-concept and self-esteem among children and young adults with visual impairment: A systematic review. Cogent Psychology, 4(1), 1319652. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2017.1319652
4.
BeachJ. D.RobinetJ. M.Hakim-LarsonJ. (1995). Self-esteem and independent living skills of adults with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 89(6), 531–540. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482X9508900609
5.
BeretvasN. S.SuizzoM.DurhamJ. A.YarnellL. M. (2008). A Reliability generalization study of scores on Rotter’s and Nowicki-Strickland’s locus of control scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 68(1), 97–119. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164407301529
6.
BranchL. G.HorowitzA.CarrC. (1989). The implications for everyday life of incident self-reported visual decline among people over age 65 living in the community. The Gerontologist, 29(3), 359–365. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/29.3.359
7.
CataudellaS.CartaS. M.MasciaM. L.MasalaC.PetrettoD. R.AgusM.PennaM. P. (2021). Teaching in times of the COVID-19 pandemic: A pilot study on teachers’ self-esteem and self-efficacy in an Italian sample. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(15), 8211. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158211
8.
CloggC. C. (1995). Latent class models. In ArmingerG.CloggC. C.SobelM. E. (Eds.), Handbook of statistical modeling for the social and behavioral sciences (pp. 311–359). Plenum Press.
9.
CoopersmithS. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. W. H. Freeman.
10.
CorcoranK.FischerJ. (1987). Measures for clinical practice: A sourcebook. The Free Press.
11.
DaytonC. M. (1998). Latent class scaling analysis. Sage.
12.
DoddsA. (1993). Rehabilitating blind and visually impaired people: A psychological approach. Chapman & Hall.
13.
DominoG.DominoM. L. (2006). Psychological testing: An introduction (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
14.
ErolR. Y. (2008). Social support (perceived vs. received) as the moderator between the relationship of stress and health outcomes: Importance of locus of control [Master’s thesis]. Graduate School of Social Science, Middle East Technical University.
15.
GaraigordobilM.BernarásE. (2009). Self-concept, self-esteem, personality traits and psychopathological symptoms in adolescents with and without visual impairment. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 12(1), 149–160. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1138741600001566
16.
GoldM. E. (2002). The effects of the physical features associated with albinism on the self-esteem of African American youths. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 96(3), 133–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482X0209600302
17.
GombasJ.CsakvariJ. (2022). Experiences of individuals with blindness or visual impairment during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown in Hungary. British Journal of Visual Impairment, 40, 378–388. https://doi.org/10.1177/0264619621990695
18.
González-ValeroG.Zurita-OrtegaF.Lindell-PostigoD.Conde-PipóJ.GroszW. R.BadicuG. (2020). Analysis of self-concept in adolescents before and during COVID-19 lockdown: Differences by gender and sports activity. Sustainability, 12(18), 7792. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12187792
19.
HolmM. E.SainioP.ParikkaS.KoskinenS. (2021). The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the psychosocial well-being of people with disabilities. Disability and Health Journal, 15, 101224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dhjo.2021.101224
20.
HuurreT. M. (2000). Psychosocial development and social support among adolescents with visual impairment [Master’s thesis]. University of Tampere.
21.
HuurreT. M.AroH. M. (1998). Psychosocial development among adolescents with visual impairment. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 7(2), 73–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s007870050050
22.
HuurreΤ. Μ.KomulainenE. J.AroH. M. (1999). Social support and self-esteem among adolescents with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 93(1), 26–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482X9909300104
23.
KrampeH.DanboltL. J.HaverA.StålsettG.SchnellT. (2021). Locus of control moderates the association of COVID-19 stress and general mental distress: Results of a Norwegian and a German-speaking cross-sectional survey. BMC Psychiatry, 21, Article 437. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03418-5
24.
LangeR. V.TiggemannM. (1981). Dimensionality and reliability of the Rotter I-E locus of control scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 45(4), 398–406. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4504_9
25.
LebrasseurA.Fortin-BedardN.LettreJ.BussieresE.-L.BestK.BoucherN.HottonM.Beaulieu-BonneauS.MercierC.LamontagneM.-E.François RouthierF. (2021). Impact of COVID-19 on people with physical disabilities: A rapid review. Disability and Health Journal, 14(1), 101014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dhjo.2020.101014
26.
MayordomoΤ.GutierrezΜ.SalesΑ. (2020). Adapting and validating the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale for elderly Spanish population. International Psychogeriatrics, 32(2), 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610219001170
27.
MisamerM.Signerski-KriegerJ.BartelsC.BelzM. (2021). Internal locus of control and sense of coherence decrease during the COVID-19 pandemic: A survey of students and professionals in social work. Frontiers in Sociology, 6, Article 705809. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2021.705809
28.
MullenS.GotheN.McAuleyE. (2013). Evaluation of the factor structure of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in older adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(2), 153–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.08.009
29.
NaL.YangL. (2022). Psychological and behavioral responses during the COVID-19 pandemic among individuals with mobility and/or self-care disabilities. Disability and Health Journal, 15, 101216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dhjo.2021.101216
30.
NemčekD. (2017). Self-esteem in people with physical disabilities: Differences between active and inactive individuals. Acta Facultatis Educationis Physicae Universitatis Comenianae, 57(1), 34–47. https://doi.org/10.1515/afepuc-2017-0004
31.
OkoroC. A.StrineT. W.McKnight-EilyL.VerlendenJ.HollisN. D. (2021). Indicators of poor mental health and stressors during the COVID-19 pandemic, by disability status: A cross-sectional analysis. Disability and Health Journal, 14, 101110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dhjo.2021.101110
32.
PapadopoulosK. (2014). The impact of individual characteristics in self-esteem and locus of control of young adults with visual impairments. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(3), 671–675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2013.12.009
33.
PapadopoulosK.MontgomeryA.ChronopoulouE. (2013). The impact of visual impairments in self-esteem and locus of control. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(12), 4565–4570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2013.09.036
34.
PapadopoulosK.ParalikasT.BaroutiM.ChronopoulouE. (2014). Self-esteem, locus of control and various aspects of psychopathology of adults with visual impairments. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 61(4), 403–415. https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2014.955785
35.
PettinicchioD.MarotoM.ChaiL.LukkM. (2021). Findings from an online survey on the mental health effects of COVID19 on Canadians with disabilities and chronic health conditions. Disability and Health Journal, 14(3), 101085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dhjo.2021.101085
36.
PonchilliaP. E.StrauseB.PonchilliaS. V. (2002). Athletes with visual impairments: Attributes and sports participation. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 96(4), 267–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482X0209600408
37.
RobinsR. W.HendinH. M.TrzesniewskiK. H. (2001). Measuring global self-esteem: Construct validation of a single-item measure and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(2), 151–161. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201272002
38.
RosenbergM. (1965). Society and the adolescence self-image. Princeton University Press.
39.
RossiA.PanzeriΑ.PietrabissaG.ManzoniG. M.CastelnuovoG.MannariniS. (2020). The anxiety-buffer hypothesis in the time of COVID-19: When self-esteem protects from the impact of loneliness and fear on anxiety and depression. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 2177. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02177
40.
RotterJ. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80, 1–28.
41.
SaadatM.GhasemzadehA.KaramiS.SoleimaniM. (2012). Relationship between self-esteem and locus of control in Iranian University students. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 31, 530–535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.099
42.
SarasonI. G.LevineH. M.BashamR. B.SarasonB. R. (1983). Assessing social support: The Social Support Questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 127–139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.127
43.
SchmittD.AllikJ. (2005). Simultaneous administration of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in 53 nations: Exploring the universal and culture-specific features of global self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(4), 623–642. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.623
44.
SenjamS. S. (2021). A persons-centered approach for prevention of COVID-19 disease and its impacts in persons with disabilities. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, Article 608958. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.608958
45.
SigurvinsdottirR.ThorisdottirI. E.GylfasonH. F. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on mental health: The role of locus on control and internet use. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(9), 6985. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17196985
46.
StamovlasisD.PapageorgiouG.TsitsipisG.TsikalasT.VaiopoulouJ. (2018). Illustration of step-wise latent class modelling with covariates and taxometric analysis in research probing children’s mental models in learning sciences. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 532. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00532
47.
TheisN.CampbellN.De LeeuwJ.OwenM.SchenkeK. C. (2021). The effects of COVID-19 restrictions on physical activity and mental health of children and young adults with physical and/or intellectual disabilities. Disability and Health Journal, 14(3), 101064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dhjo.2021.101064
48.
TuttleD. W. (1984). Self-esteem and adjusting blindness. Charles C. Thomas.
49.
TuttleD. W.TuttleN. R. (2004). Self-esteem and adjusting with blindness. Charles C. Thomas.
50.
UmucuE.LeeB. (2020). Examining the impact of COVID-19 on stress and coping strategies in individuals with disabilities and chronic conditions. Rehabilitation Psychology, 65(3), 193–198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/rep0000328
51.
VermuntJ. K. (2017). Latent class modeling with covariates: Two improved three-step approaches. Political Analysis, 18(4), 450–469. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpq025
52.
VermuntJ. K.MagidsonJ. (2002). Latent class cluster analysis. In HagenaarsJ. A.McCutcheonA. L. (Eds.), Applied latent class analysis (pp. 89–106). Cambridge University Press.
