Abstract
In recent decades, we have witnessed the staggering evolution of digitalization, which has become a fundamental part of children’s lives. Relational, Information and Communication Technologies (RICT) bring many benefits, but they have also brought countless threats that are creating problems for the development, well-being and mental health of children. It is, therefore, essential for schools, families and society as a whole to take measures rooted in digital and emotional education that will curb the potential harmful effects of technologies. Against this background, the research presented in this article conducts a review of studies that have analysed the consequences of cyberbullying, other risks/dangers of the digital world and protective factors. In addition, it addresses the topics of prevention and intervention in relation to cyberbullying and other issues surrounding the problematic use of the Internet and social media, tackled within schools, families, the clinical setting, society and technology companies, emphasizing future challenges in each of these areas of prevention, intervention and research.
This article aims to contribute to the discussion surrounding ‘What research is important today in human development, learning and education?’ raised by the editors of JSED, Infancia y Aprendizaje (Bautista et al., 2023), within the topic ‘The role of information and communication technologies (ICT) in child and adolescent development’. Starting with this key question, the article seeks to fill in some of the gaps identified by Gámez-Guadix related to prevention, intervention and research, pointing out that there are no specific recommendations or guidelines for parents and educators and that it is necessary to identify child and adolescent development processes associated with the use of RICT, as well as to better understand the risks and consequences of Internet use by children. The article carries out a prospective analysis of cyberbullying and other problems related to the use of the Internet and social media with the aim of anticipating and advancing developments, challenges and guidelines for the twenty-first century regarding prevention/intervention as well as future lines of research.
To this end, the article identifies the potential consequences of cyberbullying and the problematic use of the Internet and social media on the development and mental health of children. It proposes guidelines for prevention and intervention in relation to cyberbullying and other dangers of the technological era, to be implemented by schools, families and society as a whole. In addition, it highlights future challenges in relation to prevention, intervention and research (understanding of the phenomenon, development of evaluation tools, development and validation of prevention programmes, design of psychological assessment models, design and validation of treatments for victims and bullies, etc.).
Consequences of cyberbullying, problematic use of the Internet and social media for development and mental health: a review
Consequences of cyberbullying
Cyberbullying is defined as an aggressive and intentional act carried out by an individual or group, using electronic forms of contact, repeatedly and over time, against a victim who cannot easily defend themself (Smith et al., 2008). Bullying and cyberbullying are highly prevalent problems in all schools around the world. The recent review by Flannery et al. (2023) notes that the occurrence of traditional bullying has remained stable (30%) but cyberbullying is increasing rapidly (46%). Other successive reviews (Garaigordobil, 2017a, 2020, 2023) analysing more than 300 prevalence studies show a percentage of severe victimization ranging from 5% to 10% and of occasional victimization of approximately 40%. The review of prevalence studies highlights the existence of many variations in the results, which are largely due to the behaviours explored, the proposed response options (number of times they have been assaulted weekly, monthly or annually), the analysis of severe/overall victimization, the ages and origin of the samples, etc. However, regardless of these variations, the evidence suggests that cyberbullying affects a high percentage of children, adolescents and young people, and that this sad and worrying phenomenon is on the rise.
When talking about the consequences of bullying/cyberbullying, the most dramatic episodes often emerge, involving serious threats to the victim’s integrity or leading to suicide. These situations are very tragic and they cause great shock in society because of their media repercussions, but they are soon forgotten, and unfortunately little changes. Studies of the consequences of cyberbullying show the serious effects it has for all those involved. While the most serious effects are endured by the victims, the perpetrators are also at higher risk of psychosocial disorders and psychopathological disorders in adolescence and adulthood, compared to students not involved in bullying/cyberbullying.
A systematic review of studies and meta-analyses conducted 2000–24 (Garaigordobil, 2025), which complements previous reviews (Garaigordobil, 2017a, 2020), suggests a strong association between cybervictimization and adverse developmental and mental health outcomes. Academically, cybervictims — students with adequate cognitive abilities — often face problems in terms of their academic performance, low grades, absenteeism (Gohal et al., 2023; Halliday et al., 2023; Rostam-Abadi et al., 2024), a lower sense of place attachment to school (Schneider et al., 2012), feelings of being unsafe at school (Sourander et al., 2010) and a desire to drop out (Gohal et al., 2023).
Emotionally, cybervictims have low self-esteem (Kwan et al., 2020; Urano et al., 2020), feelings of loneliness (Han et al., 2021; Kwan et al., 2020), feelings of sadness (Kumari et al., 2023), low happiness (Halliday et al., 2023), low levels of life satisfaction (Chai et al., 2020), low levels of subjective well-being (Hellfeldt et al., 2020; Navarro et al., 2015), low emotional stability (Garaigordobil, 2013), many concerns (Halliday et al., 2023), low resilience (Han et al., 2021) and alexithymia (neuropsychological phenomenon characterized by difficulties in recognizing, expressing and describing one’s own emotions, as well as difficulties in understanding and responding to the emotions of others) (Aktaş Terzioğlu & Büber, 2024).
From a psycho-social perspective, cybervictims often have problems in their relationships with peers (Kwan et al., 2020), friends (Patchin & Hinduja, 2022), in social relations (Sourander et al., 2010), problems of social adjustment (Ybarra & Mitchell, 2004), social isolation (Kumari et al., 2023), low social welfare (Hoff & Mitchell, 2009), low social competence (Audrin & Blaya, 2020), hostile/aggressive behaviours (Kwan et al., 2020), behavioural problems (Garaigordobil & Machimbarrena, 2019) and delinquent behaviours (fights, substance use) (Mitchell et al., 2007).
From a mental health perspective, cybervictimization has been associated with depressive symptoms, moderate/severe depression and major depressive disorder (Gámez-Guadix et al., 2013; Landoll et al., 2015; Maurya et al., 2022; Mitchell et al., 2007; Sarhangi et al., 2023; Song et al., 2024; Tran et al., 2023). In addition, many studies show that cybervictims have suicidal ideation (Bai et al., 2021; Kowalski et al., 2014; Zhou et al., 2024), carry out suicide attempts and behaviours (Dadras & Takashi, 2024; Ndetei et al., 2024; Nguyen et al., 2023; Sarhangi et al., 2023) and carry out physical self-harm (Azami & Taremian, 2020; Kwan et al., 2020) and digital self-harm (posting insults, threats, disparaging or damaging comments about themselves on social media) (Patchin & Hinduja, 2017). In addition, they have anxiety (Kwan et al., 2020; Kumari et al., 2023), anguish (Schneider et al., 2012), social anxiety (Landoll et al., 2015; Sireli et al., 2024), generalized anxiety (Gong et al., 2022), stress (González-Cabrera et al., 2017; Kowalski et al., 2014; Molero et al., 2023; Ramadan et al., 2024), social stress (Garthe et al., 2023) and post-traumatic stress (Liu et al., 2020).
Several studies also confirm that cybervictimization is associated with substance use/abuse (Azami & Taremian, 2020; Barbero et al., 2023; McField et al., 2023), violent video game consumption (Rial-Boubeta et al., 2024) and Internet addiction (Aktaş Terzioğlu & Büber, 2024). Furthermore, cybervictims have been found to report sleep problems (Mang et al., 2023), eating problems (concern about weight gain, weight-related self-esteem, inadequate compensatory behaviour to prevent weight gain, binge eating and its related anxiety) (Cheng et al., 2023) and attention and hyperactivity problems (Kwan et al., 2020). The tensions suffered by cybervictims are also manifested in various physical, somatic symptoms (Hasan et al., 2023; Rostam-Abadi et al., 2024; Vieno et al., 2014) and lower quality of life associated with health (González-Cabrera & Machimbarrena, 2023).
Several studies have found that many cybervictims develop mental health problems (Kwan et al., 2020), diverse psychopathological symptoms, such as somatization symptoms, obsession-compulsion, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation and psychoticism (Garaigordobil & Larrain, 2020), psychological problems (Hasan et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2021), emotional problems (Garaigordobil & Machimbarrena, 2019), internalizing problems (Tsitsika et al., 2015) and externalizing problems (Sidera et al., 2021; Tsitsika et al., 2015)
These consequences, these symptoms, occur at the time the victims suffer cyberbullying but in many cases persist in the long term (Garaigordobil, 2020). A significant number of adults who are treated by a psychologist for anxiety problems, depression or social phobia were victims of bullying/cyberbullying during childhood, adolescence or youth.
Victims who experience bullying/cyberbullying are at greater risk of future social and health problems. Despite this, studies show that not all victims have problems: although some develop serious mental health problems and even reach the point of suicide, others cope more positively with the victimization experience. These results suggest the importance of investigating protective factors and mediators/moderators that could counteract adverse effects.
Protective factors in cyberbullying
The results of various studies show that the consequences reported by cybervictims on their well-being, psychological status and mental health differ according to social and personal factors. Social factors include social connection (McLoughlin et al., 2022), social support (Wu et al., 2024), parental support (Dadras & Takashi, 2024; Sorrenti et al., 2024), teachers (Hellfeldt et al., 2020; Jaskulska et al., 2022) and peers (Dadras & Takashi, 2024; Lucas-Molina et al., 2022), positive family communication and family cohesion (Zhang et al., 2020), connection with school (Dadras & Takashi, 2024), feelings towards school and school participation (Yu et al., 2020). One meta-analysis (Grama et al., 2024) finds broad evidence of the association between victimization/cybervictimization and risk factors pertaining to both parents (authoritarian parenting, aversive parenting, interparental conflict, overprotection, permissive parenting and withdrawal) and also protective factors (democratic parenting, granting of autonomy, warmth and supervision). The results of this meta-analysis suggest that parental factors are relevant in terms of protecting or increasing the vulnerability of children/adolescents from bullying and cyberbullying.
Personal protective factors include: resilience (Santos et al., 2020; Víllora et al., 2020), self-esteem (Jaskulska et al., 2022; Kumari et al., 2023), problem-solving skills (Kumari et al., 2023), optimism (Song et al., 2024), self-control (Liang et al., 2024), self-mastery (Wang, 2022), emotional intelligence, intrapersonal and interpersonal emotional competency (capacity to identify, understand and adequately express emotions) (Sorrenti et al., 2024; Urano et al., 2020), avoidance coping (Ho & Nguyen, 2024) and digital literacy (Kumari et al., 2023). Therefore, while some undergo a strong emotional impact, others report a minor impact, and one small group of cybervictims do not report any effects at all. These studies emphasize a set of social and personal variables to be developed, since they are factors that protect, mediate or moderate the relationship between victimization and mental health problems. These results suggest prevention strategies to reduce the impacts of cyberbullying by teaching personal skills, promoting school social connections and proposing family interventions.
Regarding the challenges and future guidelines for the twenty-first century related to the impact of cyberbullying on mental health, it is worth highlighting the need to: (1) analyse the impact of cyberbullying on the development and mental health of perpetrators and onlookers; (2) investigate the long-term psychological and social effects of victimization; (3) explore further to identify other individual, family, school and community factors that may protect children from cyberbullying; and (4) identify social and personal factors that increase the risk of being a cybervictim or cyberbully.
Given the high prevalence of cyberbullying, and the serious consequences for a significant percentage of students, it can be considered a mental health problem and a public health issue, which allows us to emphasize the need for evaluation, prevention and intervention. Therefore, all identification, prevention and intervention work to eradicate bullying/cyberbullying will nurture the mental health and development of children and young people.
Cyberbullying is undoubtedly a serious problem, but there are many problematic situations that teens can encounter when using the Internet and social media. Therefore, it is important to identify other dangers of problematic Internet and social media use and their effects on adolescent development and mental health.
Problematic use of the Internet and social media: impact on development and mental health
In recent years, a large body of research has investigated the impact of digital technologies. Although some have focused on its benefits (source of entertainment, socialization tool, source of learning, instrument for cognitive development, creativity, technological skills . . .), most of them have concentrated on the dangers of the digital world, on the problems that the Internet and social media create in childhood and adolescence.
The study by Lahti et al. (2024), which used a Delphi method to examine the problematic situations that adolescents may encounter when using social media, identified the following, classified in order of importance by a panel of experts: exposure to direct cyberbullying (cruel behaviour, anonymous harassment, public humiliation, insults); exposure to indirect cyberbullying (exclusion from digital communities, online rumours); exposure to sexual harassment and abuse; exposure to appearance-related pressures; exposure to negative behaviour (images or videos of violence, dangerous situations, drugs, gambling . . .); exposure to racism; lack of knowledge and skills to approach social media content critically; reduction in the quality/quantity of sleep due to social media use; addiction to social media use (compulsive and uncontrolled use); behaving offensively without understanding the emotional content of messages (low emotional skills); inability to manage time spent on social media; need to be constantly available to avoid exclusion; sharing personal, private and sensitive information or files; exposure to online scams; spending too much time on social media and in front of screens; and sharing private and sensitive information or files of others without their permission.
Some studies have confirmed the association between cyberbullying (victimization and perpetration) and problematic use of the Internet. For example, Machimbarrena et al. (2021) found that teens who obtained high scores for online victimization and perpetration had severe problematic use of the Internet, especially cybervictims. Furthermore, Ganson et al. (2024) found an association between screen time (YouTube, messages, posts, TV, games, browsing, Google search, etc.), social media use (Instagram, X/Twitter, Facebook, Twitch, TikTok) and cybervictimization. Along these same lines, Marengo et al. (2021) found that the risk of becoming a cybervictim was higher when there was a problematic use of social media. In addition, problematic use of the Internet was associated with low quality of life associated with health (Machimbarrena, Gónzalez-Cabrera, Ortega-Barón, et al., 2019).
There are many recent studies, reviews and meta-analyses that show the impact of problematic use of the Internet and social media on development and mental health. The review carried out by Muppalla et al. (2023) concludes that the high dependence of minors on screens has posed serious public health problems, since it can damage their cognitive, linguistic and socio-emotional growth. Spending too much time in front of a screen and performing multiple tasks with other media has been linked to poorer executive and academic performance. Because screen time reduces the quantity and quality of interactions between children and their caregivers, it can also have an impact on language development. In addition, overuse of screens has detrimental effects on socio-emotional growth, increasing the likelihood of obesity, sleep disorders and mental health conditions such as depression and anxiety. It can impede the ability to interpret emotions, stimulate aggressive behaviours and damage overall psychological health.
Another review (Khalaf et al., 2023) concludes that excessive use of mobile phones and other media results in chronic sleep loss, which has a negative influence on cognitive ability, school performance and socio-emotional functioning. According to data from several cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, excessive use of mobile phones and social media among adolescents is related to psychological distress, self-injurious behaviours and suicidal tendencies. Weinstein’s (2023) review shows that problematic (excessive) use of social media has been associated with: (1) increased rate of depression, anxiety, stress, obsessive-compulsive disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and propensity to excessive alcohol consumption; (2) tendency towards vulnerability to aggression, cyberbullying and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) referring to the fear/anxiety experienced about missing something on social media and being excluded, leading to constant connectivity; (3) traits such as neuroticism and narcissism; (4) sleep disorders; and (5) other addictions.
Along these same lines, the review and meta-analysis conducted by Purba et al. (2023) finds a relationship between the frequent use of social media between the ages of 10 and 19 and a higher consumption of alcohol, drugs and tobacco with high-risk sexual behaviours, antisocial behaviour, multiple high-risk behaviours and gambling. The review by Guzmán and Gélvez (2023) concludes that the problematic use of social media (excessive use and addiction) negatively affects health and that social media are designed to capture and retain the attention of users, which can generate problems in terms of physical, psychological and social health during adolescence. Corroborating these results, the review of 129 studies conducted by Messena and Everri (2023) shows that negative use of digital technologies (compulsive/addictive use of devices and the Internet and negative online experiences, e.g., cyberbullying) was negatively related to well-being. The review by Prasad et al. (2023) stresses that the use of social media is often associated with depression and anxiety. Finally, in their study, Li et al. (2023) showed that Internet use for more than three hours a day was associated with increased anxiety, depression and psychosomatic problems, and the study by Aktaş Terzioğlu and Büber (2024) found a correlation between Internet addiction and alexithymia.
In addition, the global survey on parent and child perceptions of digital security (MICROSOFT, 2024), conducted with more than 16,000 parents, adolescents and other adults in 17 countries, which examined negative behaviours and experiences of 10 online risks, shows that 67% reported having experienced risk last year, 50% misinformation and fake news, 35% hate speech, 34% violent content (extreme violence, terrorism, etc.), 20% cyberbullying, 14% self-harm and suicide, 14% sexual solicitation and 8% child sexual abuse and exploitation.
In short, in synthesis, despite the benefits of RICTs, there are many risks or dangers that adolescents may encounter in the digital world, for example, sexting-sextortion, grooming, addictions (video games, pornography, mobile phones, Internet, shopping, gambling, etc.), FOMO, high-risk behaviours (sexual, dangerous viral challenges, selfies, etc.), violent behaviours (cyberbullying, digital gender-based violence in teenage couples, digital harassment of teachers, hate speech, aggressive antisocial behaviours, etc.), exposure to inappropriate content (extreme violence, pornography, fake news, self-harm, suicide, etc.), substance use, identity theft, etc. The problematic (inappropriate/excessive/compulsive) use of the Internet and social media, related to these digital risks or dangers, can have a very harmful effect on child and adolescent development (neurological, psychomotor, intellectual, social, emotional development, etc.) and on the mental health of minors (stress, anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation, suicide, self-harm, eating disorders, psychosomatic problems, substance use, dependency, addictions, sleep disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, etc.).
However, the American Psychological Association (APA, 2023) concludes that: (1) the use of social media is not inherently beneficial or harmful. In most cases, the effects are likely to depend on what adolescents can do and see online, on pre-existing strengths or vulnerabilities (personal and psychological characteristics) and the contexts in which they grow up; and (2) an adolescent’s development is gradual and continuous, starting with biological and neurological changes occurring approximately from the age of 10, which are completed by around the age of 25. Age-appropriate use of social media should be based on the adolescent’s level of maturity (self-regulation skills, intellectual development, risk understanding) and family environment. Overall, the risks are likely to be higher in early adolescence (period of greater biological, social and psychological transitions) than in late adolescence and early adulthood.
As we better understand the complex, two-way relationship between technology and mental health, we must go beyond dichotomous narratives about whether it is good or bad, since it is both. Along the same lines as the arguments put forward by Weigle and Shafi (2024), we might say that the relationship between the use of social media and mental illness is complex and depends on the characteristics of the user and their habits/experiences in these media (cyberbullying, sexting, etc.). Participation in social media has different impacts on anxiety, depression, suicidal tendencies, etc. However, these conclusions in general are derived from correlational studies and depend on subjective reports, with unreliable methods sometimes used to evaluate the use of social media, which limits interpretation. Future research should seek to establish causality in the relationships between Internet and social media use and developmental/mental health problems through longitudinal studies.
In conclusion, in the digital era, life without technology and social media is impossible, but they do not inherently imply anything positive or negative in themselves. They are tools with enormous potential to benefit children (having fun, communicating, learning, etc.), but they can also generate a variety of negative consequences. Because of all the problems that digitalization and screen abuse can create, we need to ensure effective digital and emotional education to make sure such technology is being used appropriately. It is essential to help children and teenagers use the Internet safely and responsibly, learning that should be initiated in the family and integrated into the school curriculum. Therefore, the second part of this article focuses on prevention and intervention in relation to cyberbullying and other dangers of the technological world, to be implemented by schools, families and society as a whole.
Prevention and intervention in relation to cyberbullying and other dangers of the technological age: building digital resilience
Prevention and intervention must be multidirectional, a cooperative effort, synergistic, between schools, families, clinical-therapeutic settings, technology companies and society in general. Prevention-intervention should include educational interventions, interventions with the family, clinical-therapeutic interventions to help victims and perpetrators, development of policies, regulations and laws, solutions provided by technology, etc. What should be done to prevent cyberbullying and other dangers of the digital age and to eliminate them once they have appeared? Detect them early, prevent them and intervene properly once they have occurred.
Detection and evaluation of cyberbullying and problematic use of the Internet and social media
Which strategies can be used to identify students who are experiencing cyberbullying and those who are perpetrating these behaviours? The strategies to identify cybervictims and cyberbullies include: (1) observation of victims’ behaviour within school, family and clinical settings (for example, depressive and anxious behaviours, mood swings, limited peer social interaction, decline in academic performance, somatic symptoms — such as headaches, stomach-aches, persistent physical discomfort, dizziness, etc. — sudden withdrawal from previously enjoyed recreational activities, signs of distress following computer use, seeing a message on their phone or receiving a call when they refuse to disclose the origin, etc.); (2) sociometric information, gathered by asking students to complete an anonymous sociometric questionnaire in which they report individuals in the group who are commonly subjected to aggression via the Internet, social media, etc., as well as those who typically engage in such behaviours; and (3) self-reports, which may be used in educational and clinical settings, whereby individuals are asked about cyberbullying behaviours they have experienced, perpetrated or witnessed (e.g., Garaigordobil, 2013, 2017b), as well as other cyber-related behaviours they have suffered or enacted.
Teenagers should be screened regularly for signs of problematic social media use that may affect their ability to perform daily tasks and routines and may pose a risk of more serious psychological harm over time. The indicators of problematic social media use include: (1) a tendency to use social media even when they wish to stop or recognizing that it interferes with daily responsibilities; (2) excessive effort devoted to ensuring continuous access to social media; (3) intense urges to use social media or disruption of other activities due to excessive use; (4) consistently spending more time on social media than initially intended; (5) dishonest or deceptive behaviour to maintain access to social media; (6) loss or disruption of meaningful relationships or educational opportunities as a result of social media use, etc. (APA, 2023).
What challenges are we facing in the twenty-first century to prevent the problems that children encounter in the digital world? Future challenges and guidelines for evaluation include the need to:
(1) systematically evaluate schoolchildren: cyberbullying and other problems related to the use of the Internet and social media need to be systematically assessed in schools using valid and reliable tools. These instruments should be capable of identifying and measuring the prevalence of these phenomena, as well as their consequences (violent, high-risk behaviours, addictions, self-harm, suicidal ideation, disordered eating, etc.);
(2) create new assessment instruments: for optimal evaluation, new tools are required that can guarantee reliability and validity. Currently, many instruments are unable to offer psychometric guarantees and there are few that evaluate cyberbullying at an early age (cyberbullying is present from the age of 10 onwards, although it depends on the age at which children gain access to RICT). Therefore, it is important to systematize reliable and valid tools to measure cyberbullying and other problems related to the use of the Internet and social media that can be administered to different age groups.
Prevention and intervention strategies in educational settings
What can schools do to prevent and intervene? In addition to identifying/evaluating cyberbullying and other problems related to the use of the Internet and social media, schools play a very important role in preventing and eliminating these problems by implementing three types of interventions: (1) programmes to foster socio-emotional development; (2) specific programmes to prevent cyberbullying and other dangers of the digital world; and (3) when bullying/cyberbullying is a reality, activating the anti-bullying protocol that should exist in all schools.
First of all, it is essential to implement educational programmes to promote socio-emotional development from an early age and throughout child–youth development. When we talk about socio-emotional development, we are referring to the development of various social and emotional skills. Social skills include, for example: communication skills, prosocial behaviour, assertive behaviour, the ability to resolve conflicts constructively, the ability to identify stereotypes and prejudices that lead to discriminatory behaviour, behaviours based on ethical-moral values and respect for human rights, etc. Emotional competencies would include, for example, the ability to identify emotions in oneself and others, the ability to cognitively understand the causes and consequences of emotions, the ability to express and regulate emotions appropriately, the ability to activate positive emotions in oneself and others, the capacity for empathy, etc. Numerous studies (see, for example, the review by Garaigordobil, 2018a) have confirmed that socio-emotional development has many benefits for physical and mental health, personal and social adaptation, academic performance, violence prevention, etc. Emotional education provides resources and strategies that enable students to cope with the challenges that life presents. It is a form of primary prevention that maximizes constructive tendencies (cooperation, optimism, resilience, etc.) while minimizing destructive ones (stress, depression, anxiety, violence, substance use, addictions, etc.).
In addition to activities that promote social and emotional development, it is important to systematically implement programmes to prevent bullying/cyberbullying and other problems related to the use of the Internet and social media. These programmes contain specific activities that directly confront students with bullying/cyberbullying situations in order to encourage them not to enact such behaviours, to support the victim and/or report any instances they see. In addition, they must include activities related to other negative cyberphenomena (sexting, grooming, addictions, high-risk behaviours, violent behaviours, exposure to inappropriate content, phishing, etc.).
In recent years, increased social and educational awareness of bullying/cyberbullying and other problems related to the use of the Internet and social media has prompted an increase in prevention programmes, for example: the KIVA programme (‘Kiusaamista Vastaan’, meaning ‘anti-bullying’) (Salmivalli et al., 2011); the CONRED Programme, which tackles knowing, building and coexisting on the Internet and social media (del Rey et al., 2012); Cyberprogram 2.0, an intervention programme to prevent and reduce cyberbullying (Garaigordobil & Martínez-Valderrey, 2014, 2016, 2018); and Safety.net, a multi-risk prevention programme on the Internet (Ortega-Barón et al., 2021, 2024). Such programmes should clarify: (1) what bullying/cyberbullying is; (2) the negative consequences for victims, bullies and onlookers; (3) the importance of developing empathy towards the victim along with critical capacity and reporting such actions; as well as (4) positive coping strategies to prevent and reduce these behaviours and other negative cyberspace phenomena, when they are endured or witnessed. In the same vein, Wiederhold (2024) stresses that these programmes should teach positive coping techniques, promote the attitude of seeking help, connection and belonging, encourage young people to support each other if they witness such situations, and increase positive links with adults and school.
Looking at the competences we should be aiming to develop in adolescents to prevent and cope with problematic situations or dangers they may encounter when using the Internet and social media, the study by Lahti et al. (2024) used a Delphi method with a panel of experts to identify the following competencies, ranked in order of importance: the ability to act responsibly and without offending others on social media; knowledge of the types of activities that are prohibited (identity theft, sexual harassment, spreading information, defamation, etc.); knowing whom to contact in the event of exposure to bullying, cyberbullying or sexual harassment; the ability to seek help from a trusted adult if necessary; having the knowledge and skills to implement security practices to protect privacy (both personal and others’); the ability to act with empathy and respect towards others on social media; the ability to evaluate the credibility of social media posts; the ability to protect personal privacy (passwords, profile privacy settings, etc.); the ability to assess the reliability of an online friend who was previously unknown to them; the ability to manage time spent on social media; the ability to assess the reliability of information posted; awareness of their own rights (the right to information, privacy, freedom of expression, etc.); the ability to assess which content is appropriate to post or share; the ability to evaluate their own behaviour and that of others on social media; the ability to explain how social media affects self-image and self-esteem; the ability to identify problematic situations on social media in everyday life; the ability to identify, process, express and regulate emotions on social media; the ability to compare information posted across different data sources; and knowing where to report inappropriate material.
Although some programmes have been developed in recent years to prevent cyberbullying, there is a gap in terms of interventions to address other risks related to the use of the Internet and social media (misinformation, hate speech, sexting, grooming, self-harm, etc.). However, some have recently been developed for these issues, for example, a programme to prevent grooming (Calvete et al., 2022; Gámez-Guadix et al., 2021) or the programme ‘HateLess. Together Against Hate’, which showed a significant reduction in online hate speech, as well as an increase in empathy, self-efficacy and counter-discourse (Wachs et al., 2023, 2024).
With regard to prevention, effective programmes are multi-component school plans that contain elements of universal and specific strategies (classroom interventions, treatment of victims and perpetrators, involvement of families, etc.) (Flannery et al., 2023; George et al., 2024). For interventions to be effective, there must be a strong connection between school activities, family involvement and therapeutic interventions with victims and perpetrators. In addition, there are few programmes that include specific intervention components targeting vulnerable populations (LGBTQI+, those with obesity, disabled individuals, high-capacity profiles, minority racial groups, those with mental health problems, etc.) (Garaigordobil, 2020).
When applied systematically, programmes to prevent bullying/cyberbullying and other negative phenomena associated with Internet use are often effective. However, if, despite prevention actions, bullying/cyberbullying situations are detected, schools must activate the anti-bullying protocol, which must include three phases: (1) assessment and case diagnosis, conducting interviews with all parties involved (victim, bully, both families, peers, teachers, etc.) in order to prepare a subsequent report that clarifies the nature, intensity, duration, spread and severity of the situation, students involved, effects thereof, devices used, etc.; (2) design and implementation of an action plan, with the victim (support), the bully (control), peers (awareness-prevention) and the families of both the victim and the bully, providing guidance on behavioural indicators, care guidelines, support, follow-up, etc.; and (3) evaluation and follow-up of the action plan implemented, analysing the results in the victim’s and bully’s situations, the actions carried out in the classroom and the school, teacher and family training, etc. While cases of bullying/cyberbullying are highly prevalent, protocols are rarely activated, and when they are, many parents of the victims report that the problems are not resolved. Frequently, it is the victims who, unfortunately, end up leaving the school due to the inability to resolve the situation.
What challenges are we facing in the twenty-first century to prevent the problems that children encounter in the digital world? Among the challenges and future guidelines to be developed for prevention and intervention within schools, in addition to the systematic assessment of minors and the prevalence of these problems, there is a need to:
(1) implement from an early age programmes to promote socio-emotional development, programmes that contain activities that foster social and emotional skills to prevent violence;
(2) implement from an early age programmes to prevent cyberbullying and other problems that occur in cyberspace, evaluating the effectiveness of these interventions (awareness raising, victim support, monitoring the bully, coping strategies for victims and onlookers, learning a cyber-label, blocking without risks, monitoring reputation online, etc.). It is important to offer learning opportunities and digital skills development, design cybersecurity education plans within the curriculum, train teachers about cybersecurity, raise awareness among students about the benefits and risks of the Internet . . . to create a safer digital environment;
(3) create and validate education programmes, adapted to different age groups, to prevent cyberbullying and other problems related to Internet use and social media (FOMO, sexting, sextortion, grooming, technological addictions, dangerous behaviours, violent behaviours, access to inappropriate content, etc.);
(4) design and implement early intervention programmes for cyber victims and cyber bullies.
(5) conduct longitudinal research to understand the evolution of cyberbullying and the long-term effectiveness of preventive strategies;
(6) generate evaluation procedures for anti-bullying protocols when activated in schools. It is necessary to systematize objective evaluation procedures that allow us to assess the resolution of cases of cyberbullying or related to the problematic use of the Internet;
(7) train educators, parents, students and members of the education community. The goals of this training will be to: increase awareness of concern for these issues; learn how to identify, prevent and respond to cyberbullying; know the serious consequences of cyberbullying for all involved; identify the dangers that lurk in cyberspace; and learn specific ways to protect students in this technological age (digital education) etc.;
(8) create a group of well-trained professionals (teachers, principals, psychologists, etc.) who become safe contacts, giving students a place to go if they become victims or if they wish to report other students who are being targeted by bullies;
(9) develop clear rules and policy on the use of electronic devices and cyberbullying. For example, prohibit the use of personal devices in school, monitor students’ use of school computers, establish clear consequences if they use school technology to create, send or upload content or communications that are harmful, offensive, threatening or degrading to others, etc.;
(10) facilitate reporting of cyberbullying. To do this, students should know that there are people they can turn to if they are being bullied/cyberbullied and that these adults can help them solve the problem. There could also be mailboxes distributed around the school, with forms that students can fill in anonymously, or not, to report situations of bullying/cyberbullying that they have endured and/or witnessed, etc.;
(11) investigate reports promptly, identifying whether the victim may need support from a mental health professional, or if there is a risk of violence or suicide;
(12) contact the police if cyberbullying involves threats of physical, psychological or emotional violence. For example, when there is extortion, obscene phone calls or messages, harassment, stalking, hate crimes, child pornography, sexual exploitation, etc.
Prevention and intervention strategies in the family
Interventions carried out within the school setting are very important, since it is a significant context of learning and social behaviour modelling. However, the family context has primary relevance in the development and maintenance of positive social behaviour, in preventing and helping victims cope with bullying/cyberbullying, and digital education (Garaigordobil, 2020).
Regarding the family characteristics of students involved in cyberbullying situations, the study by Garaigordobil and Machimbarrena (2017), based on a sample of students aged nine to 13, found that the parents of cybervictims tended to display higher levels of parental stress and used more permissive educational practices, and the parents of cyberbullies tended to have low levels of parental competence. A systematic review of studies published between 2004 and 2017 (Machimbarrena, González-Cabrera, & Garaigordobil, 2019) showed that cybervictims often lived in conflictive family settings, with authoritarian or negligent parents, low levels of parental support and negative family emotional bonds, while cyberbullies reported authoritarian, negligent and permissive parents and family conflicts. The protective factors included democratic parenting styles, family cohesion and quality interactions. Corroborating these data, a recent study (Garaigordobil & Navarro, 2022), with a sample of students aged 12 to 18, confirmed that cybervictims and cyberbullies had parents with low levels of involvement, acceptance and affection for their children, as well as high levels of coercion, imposition and punishment in the education of their children. In addition, students whose parents were authoritarian gained significantly higher scores for cybervictimization and cyberbullying, while those with lenient parents (high involvement/acceptance and low coercion/imposition) had significantly lower scores. Therefore, family variables seem to be a critical factor in reducing the likelihood of becoming a victim or bully.
To prevent children from becoming victims and/or bullies, it is important not to demonize RICT. The solution is not strictly to prohibit but to educate in order to prevent, educate and control. Although education in the proper use of screens should be carried out within schools, digital education should begin in the home. Parents must:
(1) get more involved in their children’s use of the Internet. The digital divide between adults and children can keep parents away from the virtual reality in which children and teens live. This means that parents sometimes fail to understand the consequences of improper technology use for their children;
(2) monitor the amount of screen and Internet time. Children and teens spend too many hours in front of screens. RICT have changed the way young people communicate, since social media and collaborative platforms are now public, massive meeting points. Children approach the Internet in a natural way. They do not necessarily do it for a purpose, they simply ‘are on the Internet’, they ‘live’ there and use it to study, chat, listen to music, etc. The Internet is a basic tool in social relationships and identity, and as such, the presence of minors on the Internet is an inexorable reality. Assuming this as a reality, we must determine clear patterns of use regarding duration or time of connection, services used, etc. It is essential for each family to establish clear rules of technology use for both children and parents;
(3) monitor the content they access. It is important to know which content they are accessing (sometimes inappropriate), check children’s accounts, search history and browser, etc. Especially with younger ones, parental control programmes are very useful, and with the older ones, it is more about communication, monitoring in a way that is as unintrusive as possible in terms of their privacy, although, in the privacy-protection debate, the protection of minors should prevail;
(4) encourage responsible webcam use. This service is a communication tool widely used by Internet users, and improper use can provide a gateway for malicious users;
(5) encourage the appropriate use of images of themselves and other people. For teenagers, photographs, images and videos are the main way they present themselves to others. In this sense, it is essential to educate so they can exercise control when sending photos/videos of themselves and other people;
(6) intra-family communication. Establishing a permanent dialogue with children is a fundamental task for parents. It is important that daily communication is the norm, that families can talk about everything (drugs, sexuality, pornography, etc.). Communication must address both the positive aspects of technology use and the risks that the Internet can entail. Only by having thorough knowledge of the situations that can take place on the Internet will we be prepared to respond to them;
(7) self-protection. It is important to promote self-protection among children, the need to be careful about which information they share on the Internet, post on social media or provide through messaging services. It is essential to teach them digital skills and also the importance of behaving responsibly and respectfully on the Internet, just as they do in the physical world. It is necessary to establish rules or agreements on how and when to use these technologies or devices, seeking consensus on these rules. It is essential to inform them about prevention/protection measures and to promote ethical values. For this, parents must engage children in dialogue, listen to their opinions, ask them about their experiences and guide them about the importance of privacy and security of their devices, applications or social media;
(8) model the appropriate use of technologies. Children learn from what they see, and parents are important models whose behaviour they observe. A good model is more effective than a thousand speeches (for example, avoid using your own mobile phone during family time, etc.);
(9) support and mediate in the use of technology. It is important to navigate with children, help them understand what can be done with technology as users and content creators, and do so with them, engaging in activities together on screens (video games, films, communications with others through Skype, etc.). Parental mediation, proper guidance and supervision are essential. Parents should take on an active role and guide their children in the proper and safe use of technology. It is important to balance autonomy and responsibility, helping them navigate the digital world in a safe way that is beneficial for their development. They need to be provided with fundamental knowledge and skills to enable them to identify and deal with dangers effectively. Some positive patterns for parental mediation can be found in the Parental Mediation Scale devised by Gervilla-García et al. (2023);
(10) carry out activities away from screens. To help avoid the risks associated with the problematic use of screens (cyberbullying, sexting, additions, compulsive shopping, pornography, FOMO, problems related to academic performance, emotions, mental health, etc.), it is important for parents and children to share activities away from screens (games, sports, cultural activities, being in nature, etc.). The balance between digital and non-digital activities is essential;
(11) promote self-esteem, empathy, prosocial behaviour and ethical-moral values. Helping children to develop adequate self-esteem, taking charge of the emotional states of other human beings, having prosocial behaviours based on ethical values and respect for human rights will inhibit involvement in situations of cyberbullying and other problems of the digital world.
Parents play a key role in prevention. Open communication channels at home, along with responsible online behaviour education, can provide children with the tools to navigate the digital world safely. In 2023, the APA recommended that parents monitor the social media of children under 15, meaning that they should check, discuss and engage in ongoing training around social media content, which must be balanced with the appropriate privacy needs of young people. Parental monitoring can also incorporate boundary-setting around social media in the home. In addition, parental supervision (checking the child’s phone together, etc.) can help parents identify problematic messages and give children the opportunity to discuss uncomfortable situations, etc. (Wiederhold, 2024).
What challenges are we facing in the twenty-first century to prevent the problems that children encounter in the digital world? The challenges and future guidelines we need to address for prevention and intervention within the family setting include:
(1) designing training programmes: evidence-based programmes that allow parents to train in how to provide a digital and emotional education for their children from an early age, since there is an important gap in training proposals for these objectives;
(2) systematically running training programmes for parents. It is necessary to educate families so that they understand what bullying and cyberbullying are, the benefits and dangers of the Internet, so that they comprehend the risks and manage their children’s use of the Internet, the guidelines for safe use of the Internet and social media, the serious consequences that bullying/cyberbullying can have for all those involved, family risk and protective factors, parenting guidelines that reduce the likelihood of a child becoming a victim or bully, observable behaviours in victims or bullies that allow such situations to be spotted early on, the appropriate behavioural guidelines when they discover that their child is a victim or a bully, etc;
(3) investigating protective family factors. Although some data are available, further research is needed on complementary protective factors that reduce the likelihood of their children becoming involved in cyberbullying and other problems related to Internet and social media use. It would, therefore, be important to fill these gaps through future research.
Clinical-therapeutic intervention
When victimization has already occurred, leading to the manifestation of emotional and/or behavioural problems in victims and bullies, the clinical setting is another relevant context for intervention. Clinical intervention should begin with a psychological evaluation, which allows for a diagnosis to be formulated and therapeutic objectives identified to guide the subsequent treatment. The evaluation collects information through interviews with the victim/bully and their parents, to assess the history of victimization/perpetration, the current situation, the severity of the bullying/cyberbullying, other problems related to the use of the Internet and social media, to identify psychopathological symptoms, explore the child’s evolutionary development and understand the characteristics of the family context, among other relevant issues. Subsequently, tests are applied to measure: bullying/cyberbullying, other variables related to the use of the Internet and social media, social behaviour, personality traits, psychopathological symptoms, social-family context, etc. With all this, a diagnosis and recommendations are formulated, which are set out in a psychological report that includes a summary of the evaluation carried out, the results obtained, the diagnosis, the therapeutic objectives and other recommendations for the family and/or the school.
Based on the data collected, the treatment is systematized and implemented and its effects are evaluated. When dealing with victims and/or bullies, the efficacy of three types of therapeutic techniques has been demonstrated: (1) behavioural techniques such as training in social skills (assertiveness, prosocial behaviour, problem-solving, empathy, etc.) and reinforcement of positive behaviours (aggression control in the bully, self-assertion in the victim, etc.); (2) cognitive techniques such as cognitive restructuring to replace irrational beliefs with more adaptive ways of thinking, and self-control training through consequence analysis and the learning of techniques to reduce anger, anxiety, stress, etc.; and (3) emotional techniques such as drawing, play, storytelling, dramatization, etc., which facilitate emotional expression and the constructive management of emotions (Garaigordobil, 2018b).
It is important for clinical programmes designed to help victims overcome the trauma of cyberbullying to include evidence-based strategies, interventions such as counselling, cognitive-behavioural therapy and group support sessions, all tailored to the specific situations and challenges posed by cyberbullying. Furthermore, fostering victim resilience is paramount, particularly in light of the association between suicide and bullying. Group therapy sessions that emphasize the development of resilience and coping strategies, along with psychoeducation for victims and their families, can provide a deeper understanding of the dynamics of cyberbullying and empower them to meet their challenges successfully (Wiederhold, 2024).
What challenges are we facing in the twenty-first century related to the problems that children encounter in the clinical-therapeutic setting? In relation to the clinical field, we need to:
(1) systematize a standardized evaluation model: a specific psychological assessment model to assess bullying/cyberbullying and other issues related to Internet and social media use;
(2) design psychological treatments: evidence-based, experimentally validated treatments to intervene therapeutically for problems related to life in the digital world.
Intervention within society
Bearing in mind that violent behaviour stems from various factors (cultural, family, school, personal), society should take multiple lines of action to prevent bullying/cyberbullying and other problems related to the use of the Internet. Which challenges and future guidelines are we facing in the twenty-first century to prevent and intervene in these problems within society? At the social level, we should be working to:
(1) control the violence shown on screens (television, Internet, video games, etc.). It is important to eliminate scenes of violence that reinforce aggressive, anti-social, racist, sexist, etc., behaviour, since we know that seeing violence increases the likelihood of violent behaviour and reduces empathy for victims;
(2) run media campaigns (television, radio, Internet, etc.): campaigns aimed at eradicating the myths and irrational beliefs that exist around bullying and cyberbullying, which contribute to passivity in the face of these phenomena — for example, beliefs that downplay the seriousness of these distressing situations (‘it’s only a joke’, ‘they’re only playing’, ‘kids being kids’, etc.), highlight the supposed positive aspects of bullying (‘being bullied toughens you up’, ‘it builds character’, etc.), devalue the victims (‘they’re weak’, ‘they’re whiny’, ‘they’re troublemakers’, etc.) or suggest that such behaviours have always existed and therefore cannot be changed. There is also a need for campaigns to raise awareness surrounding the serious consequences of bullying/cyberbullying for all those involved (victims, perpetrators, onlookers) and prevention strategies. Do not forget that bullying/cyberbullying is one of the main causes of suicide among children and teenagers;
(3) adopt a militant intellectual and moral stance against violence. It is essential for adults to model rejection of all types of violence (collective, gender, peer-to-peer, racist, etc.) in all social contexts, which will have a positive impact on reducing bullying/cyberbullying and other forms of violence;
(4) legally regulate bullying/cyberbullying, advocating policies and legislation at local, national and international levels. In many countries, bullying/cyberbullying faces problems in terms of legal regulation, because it is not a specific criminal offence. Each of the different behaviours carried out (threats, slander, insult, coercion, extortion, dissemination of private images even when they were taken with the consent of the victim, etc.) should be investigated individually, seeking alignment with general criminal offences. In general, cyberbullying behaviours by minors are characterized as: (a) a crime against moral integrity (conduct that violates moral integrity, causes anguish, terror, feelings of inferiority that may imply humiliation, vilification and the breaking of physical or moral resistance); and (b) as the disclosure/revealing of secrets. Another problem is that there are some cyberbullying behaviours that do not fit into any criminal type. In addition, there are problems when the bully is not criminally responsible due to being underage. We must address the legal regulation of bullying/cyberbullying, which should be standardized in the criminal code of all countries, in addition to adopting cybersecurity and liability regulations for technology companies.
The role of technology in preventing cyberbullying and problems related to the use of the Internet and social media
The media spread information about the harmful effects of the Internet and social media among children, especially when serious cases such as suicide emerge, and parents are very concerned about it. Social media are big business for technology firms, but there is a great legal vacuum in relation to technological networks and their responsibility for the damage done by social media to the most vulnerable, so there is an urgent need to regulate the use of social media and establish consequences for the technological problems they generate.
In the case of digital products, there is a legal vacuum in relation to the consequences they cause, or when legislation exists, it often quickly becomes obsolete due to the slow pace of legislative systems and the exponential development of digital products. In 2021, former Facebook (now Meta) employee Frances Haugen (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances_Haugen), founder of the NGO Beyond the Screen (https://www.beyondthescreen.org/), released 21,000 internal company documents that showed company executives were aware of the damage to young people’s mental health and the distribution of false information and other content that encourages violence (https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-facebook-files-11631713039). As a result of this complaint, in October 2023, the prosecutors’ offices of 41 states of the United States filed a joint lawsuit against Meta (parent company of Facebook, WhatsApp and Instagram) for developing addictive products for young people, specially designed to engage children under 13 years of age and thereby boost the corporate revenues of this technology giant.
Therefore, there is an urgent need for major social media platforms (Snap, Meta, Google, TikTok and X/Twitter) to take action to ensure the safety of children on their platforms and to work with schools and families to address these challenges. It is critical that technology companies put in place control mechanisms to prioritize child safety, protect students from overuse and addiction, safeguard student privacy and protect students from risky algorithms (recommendation and classification algorithms that social media platforms use to display content to users, which can be risky when promoting or amplifying harmful content) (American Federation of Teachers [AFT], 2023).
To reduce the risks of psychological harm in adolescents, exposure to certain content should be minimized, reported or eliminated and technology should not direct users to such content. For example: (1) exposure to content that represents illegal or psychologically maladjusted behaviour (content that instructs or encourages participation in behaviours that are dangerous to health, such as self-harm, suicide, eating disorders/restrictive eating, purges, excessive exercise, etc.); or (2) exposure to cyberhate content (discrimination, prejudice, cyberbullying, etc.), especially targeting a specific group (racial, ethnic, gender, sexual, religious, ability, etc.) (APA, 2023).
Among the challenges we are facing in the twenty-first century related to prevention and intervention from technological companies, it is worth highlighting:
(1) the development of Artificial Intelligence algorithms and tools on digital platforms to detect cyberbullying and other problems related to Internet use in real time;
(2) creating online educational applications and programmes that teach young people how to handle cyberbullying and other problems in the digital world;
(3) forcing technology companies to take more measures to prevent cyberbullying and other negative phenomena that occur when children, adolescents and young people use RICT, building a legal framework that penalizes companies when they fail to protect the development and mental health of children for the sake of their own profits.
Conclusions
Prevention and intervention in cyberbullying and other problems arising from the use of the Internet and social media require coordinated and comprehensive action involving schools, families, the clinical setting, society and technology companies. This article presents a prospective analysis that identifies key strategic objectives to advance the prevention, intervention and investigation of these problems, such as in-depth understanding of the phenomenon, the development of robust assessment tools, the creation of prevention programmes and evident-based treatments for victims and bullies, etc.
This research makes a substantial contribution to the field of detection, prevention, intervention and investigation of cyberbullying and other dangers of the digital age in childhood and adolescence. Regarding detection, it clarifies risk indicators associated with cyberbullying and the problematic use of the Internet and social media. This serves as a guide for educators, parents and mental health professionals, facilitating early detection by recognizing emotional, academic and social symptoms. In addition, the proposed detection methods can help identify not only victims but also perpetrators and onlookers, which is crucial for more inclusive intervention.
In terms of prevention, this paper highlights the importance of strengthening social and personal protective factors from an early age, promoting a comprehensive socio-emotional and digital education. In addition, it emphasizes the systematic implementation of prevention programmes in schools and families, a key tool to promote the safe and responsible use of technology among children. Regarding improvements in intervention, the article provides practical guidelines for intervention in different settings (school, family, clinical and social), and this approach allows for a more effective and coordinated response, approaching the problem from different perspectives. In addition, it highlights the need for anti-bullying protocols in schools and therapeutic methods for victims and perpetrators, emphasizing how these approaches can significantly reduce the impact of problems.
Finally, the article identifies challenges and future guidelines, exposing critical areas for further research, such as the need for longitudinal studies that evaluate the effectiveness of prevention programmes and therapeutic interventions. It also highlights the urgency of strengthening cooperation between educational institutions, families and technology companies, and the importance of legislating around digital security, a fundamental challenge to address cyberbullying and other problems related to the use of the Internet and social media among children and adolescents. In this direction, it emphasizes the importance of international collaboration in investigating problems of the digital world to share knowledge and good practices, participate in consortia and global networks dedicated to prevention, promote interdisciplinary research that combines diverse knowledge (psychology, sociology, technology, education and law), encouraging the participation of academics, mental health professionals, technologists, policymakers and educators. In short, this research offers a comprehensive and rigorous framework to understand and address digital risks, integrating prevention, intervention and research from a comprehensive perspective.
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