This study employs Said’s concept of Orientalism and van Dijk’s concept of the ideological square to analyze three elite American newspapers’ editorial coverage of Iran’s nuclear program. A critical discourse analysis of The New York Times, The Washington Post, and The Wall Street Journal editorials from 1984 to 2004 identified six Orientalist themes. The study finds that The Wall Street Journal and The Washington Post more predominantly drew on Orientalist arguments than did The New York Times.
Abdel-Malek, A. (1963). Orientalism in crisis. Diogenes, 11(44), 103-140.
2.
Agence France-Presse. (2005, March 9). US not an example for nuclear non-proliferation: Sam Nunn. Retrieved March 19, 2006, from http://www.spacedaily.com/news/nuclear-doctrine-05j.html
3.
Alatas, S. H. (1977). The myth of the lazy native. London: Frank Cass.
4.
Alatom, B. E. (1997). Orientalist stereotyping in modern American popular culture. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Texas at Arlington.
5.
Audit Bureau of Circulation. (2006). Top 200 newspapers by largest reported circulation. Retrieved October 30, 2006, from http://www.accessabc.com/reader/top150.htm
6.
Baldwin, E., Longhurst, B., McCracken, S., Ogborn, M., & Smith, G. (2000). Introducing cultural studies. Athens: The University of Georgia Press.
7.
Bennett, L. W. (1990). Toward a theory of press-state relations in the United States. Journal of Communication, 40(2), 103-125.
8.
Billeaudeaux, A., Domke, D., Hutcheson, J. S., & Garland, P. (2003). Newspaper editorials follow lead of Bush administration. Newspaper Research Journal, 24(1), 166-184.
9.
British Petroleum. (n.d.). Our history. Retrieved March 15, 2006, from http://www.bp.com/company_overview/history/bp/beyond.asp
10.
Broad, W. J. (2005, February 7). U.S. redesigning atomic weapons. The New York Times, pp. A1-A1, A8-A8.
11.
Carter, J. (2005, March 28). Saving nonproliferation. The Washington Post, p. A17-A17.
12.
de Saussure, F. (1959). Course in general linguistics (W. Baskin, Trans.). New York: Philosophical Library.
13.
Djait, H. (1985). Europe and Islam. Berkeley: University of California Press.
14.
Dunmire, P. L. (1997). Naturalizing the future in factual discourse: A critical linguistic analysis of a projected event. Written Communication, 14(2), 221-264.
15.
El Baradei, M. (2004, September 1). Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Islamic Republic of Iran (Report by the Director General, IAEA Board of Governors). Retrieved March 5, 2006, from http://www.iaea.or.at/Publications/Documents/Board/2004/gov2004-60.pdf
16.
Encouraging words from Iran. (2003, October 22). The New York Times, p. 22-22.
17.
Entman, R. (1991). Framing U.S. coverage of international news: Contrasts in narratives of the KLM and Iran Air incidents. Journal of Communication, 41(4), 6-27.
18.
Entman, R. (2004). Projections of power: Framing news, public opinion, and U.S. foreign policy. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
19.
Facing Iran. (2004, December 6). The Washington Post, p. A20-A20.
20.
Facing Iran, with Europe. (2004, November 9). The Washington Post, p. A26-A26.
21.
Failed preemption. (2004, June 18). The Washington Post, p. A28-A28.
22.
Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and power. London: Longman.
23.
Fowler, R., & Kress, G. (1979). Critical linguistics. In R. Fowler, B. Hodge, G. Kress, & T. Trew (Eds.), Language and control (pp. 185-213). London: Routledge Keegan Paul.
24.
Gasiorowski, M. J., & Byrne, M. (Eds.). (2004). Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 coup in Iran. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
25.
Giacomo, C. (2003, August 26). U.N. nuclear chief: U.S. should set nuclear disarmament example. Retrieved March 4, 2006, from http://www.worldrevolution.org/article/995
26.
Gitlin, T. (2003). The whole world is watching: Mass media in the making and unmaking of the new left. Berkeley: University of California Press.
27.
Golan, G. (2006). Inter-media agenda setting and global news coverage. Journalism Studies, 7(2), 323-333.
28.
Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the prison notebooks of Antonio Gramsci (Q. Hoare & G. N. Smith, Trans.). New York: International Publishers.
29.
Groundhog Day. (2004, November 20). The New York Times, p. 18-18.
30.
Hall, S. (1996). The problem of ideology: Marxism without guarantees. In D. Morely & K. Chen (Eds.), Stuart Hall: Critical dialogues in cultural studies (pp. 25-46). London: Routledge.
31.
Hall, S. (2000). Racist ideologies and the media. In P. Marris & S. Thornham (Eds.), Media studies: A reader (2nd ed., pp. 271-282). New York: New York University Press.
32.
Hartley, J. (2002). Communication, cultural and media studies: The key concepts (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
33.
Heiss, M. A. (2000). Real men don’t wear pajamas: Anglo-American cultural perceptions of Mohammed Mossadeq and the Iranian oil nationalization dispute. In P. L. Hahn (Ed.), Empire and revolution: The United States and the third world since 1945 (pp. 178-194). Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
34.
Henry, F., & Tator, C. (2002). Discourse of domination: Racial bias in the Canadian English-language press. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
35.
Herman, E. S., & Chomsky, N. (2002). Manufacturing consent: The political economy of the mass media (2nd ed.). New York: Pantheon Books.
36.
Hodgson, M. G. (1993). Rethinking world history. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
37.
Howard, R. (2004). Iran in crisis? Nuclear ambitions and the American response. London: Zed Books.
38.
Indispensable allies on Iran. (2004, August 14). The New York Times, p. 14-14.
39.
Institute for Public Accuracy. (2005a, February 8). While the United States makes demands on Iran, budget calls for boost of U.S. nuclear weapons. Retrieved March 12, 2006, from http://www.accuracy.org/press_releases/PR020805.htm
40.
Institute for Public Accuracy. (2005b, March 16). Administration agenda on Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Retrieved March 1, 2005, from http://www.accuracy.org/newsrelease.php?articleId=1001
41.
International Atomic Energy Agency. (n.d.). Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. Retrieved March 5, 2006, from http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/Others/infcirc140.pdf
42.
International Crisis Group. (2003). Dealing with Iran’s nuclear program (Middle East Report No. 18). Retrieved March 7, 2006, from http://www.icg.org//library/documents/middle_east___north_africa/18_deal_with_iran_nuclear_pgm.pdf
43.
Iran’s bomb. (2003, September 22). The Washington Post, p. A22-A22.
44.
Iran’s European bargain. (2003, October 24). The Washington Post, p. A24-A24.
45.
Iran’s nuclear challenge. (2004, August 4). The New York Times, p. 16-16.
46.
Iran’s nuclear menace. (2003, November 25). The New York Times, p. 26-26.
47.
Iran’s “serious failures.” (2004, February 20). The Washington Post, p. A24-A24.
48.
Jehl, D., & Schmitt, E. (2005, March 9). Data is lacking on Iran’s arms, U.S. panel says: Intelligence on nuclear intentions questioned. The New York Times, pp. A1-A1, A8-A8.
49.
Karim, K. H. (1997). The historical resilience of primary stereotypes. In S. Riggins (Ed.), The language and politics of exclusion: Others in discourse (pp. 153-182). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
50.
Karim, K. H. (2000). The Islamic peril: Media and global violence. Montreal: Black Rose Books.
51.
Kemp, G. (2003, Summer). How to stop the Iranian bomb. The National Interest, pp. 48-58.
52.
Kissinger, H. A. (2001). Does America need a foreign policy? Toward a diplomacy for the 21st century. New York: Simon & Schuster.
53.
Knight, G., & Dean, T. (1982). Myth and the structure of news. Journal of Communication, 32(2), 144-161.
54.
Lee, C. (2003). Post, Times highlight government’s war efforts. Newspaper Research Journal, 24(1), 190-203.
55.
Little, D. (2002). American Orientalism: United States and the Middle East since 1945. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.
56.
Macfie, A. L. (2000). Orientalism, a reader. New York: New York University Press.
57.
Madrid, J. E. (1986). Means of communication and construction of hegemony. In R. Atwood & E. G. McAnany (Eds.), Communication and Latin American society: Trends in critical research (1960-1985) (pp. 112-124). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
58.
Malek, A. (1997). The New York Times’ editorial position and U.S. foreign policy: The case of Iran revisited. In A. Malek (Ed.), News media & foreign relations: A multifaceted perspective (pp. 225-246). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
59.
McAlister, M. (2001). Epic encounters: Culture, media, and U.S. interests in the Middle East, 1945-2000. Berkeley: University of California Press.
60.
Mowlana, H. (1997). The media and foreign policy: A framework of analysis. In A. Malek (Ed.), News media & foreign relations: A multifaceted perspective (pp. 29-41). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
61.
The Mullahs’ bomb. (2004, March 12). The Wall Street Journal, p. A14-A14.
62.
The Mullahs’ nukes. (2003, December 12). The Wall Street Journal, p. A12-A12.
63.
The Mullahs’ promise. (2003, October 22). The Wall Street Journal, p. A20-A20.
64.
Oktar, L. (2001). The ideological organization of representational processes in the presentation of us and them. Discourse & Society, 12(3), 313-346.
65.
One more round on Iran’s nukes. (2004, December 1). The New York Times, p. 30-30.
66.
Sahimi, M. (2003). Iran’s nuclear program, part I: Its history. Retrieved February 20, 2006, from http://www.payvand.com/news/03/oct/1015.html
67.
Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books.
68.
Said, E. W. (1981). Covering Islam. New York: Vintage Books.
69.
Said, E. W. (1994). Culture and imperialism. New York: Vintage Books.
70.
Sardar, Z. (1999). Orientalism. Buckingham: Open University Press.
71.
Squassoni, S. (2004). Iran’s nuclear program: Recent developments (Congressional Research Service Report for Congress). Retrieved February 27, 2006, from http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/64891.pdf
72.
Switzer, L., McNamara, J., & Ryan, M. (1999). Critical-cultural studies in research and instruction. Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, 3, 23-42.
73.
Sykes, M. (1985). Discrimination in discourse. In T. A. van Dijk (Ed.), Handbook of discourse analysis (Vol. 4, pp. 83-101). Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam Press.
74.
Tarock, A. (2006). Washington: To engage or change the regime in Iran? New Political Science, 28(1), 81-99.
75.
Tehran’s triumph. (2004, December 1). The Wall Street Journal, p. A10-A10.
76.
Tibawi, A. L. (1963). English-speaking Orientalists: A critique of their approach to Islam and Arab nationalism. The Muslim World, 1(1), 185-204.
77.
Tuchman, G. (1972). Objectivity as strategic ritual: An examination of newsmen’s notions of objectivity. American Journal of Sociology, 77(4), 660-679.
78.
van Dijk, T. (1987). Communicating racism: Ethnic prejudice in thought and talk. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
79.
van Dijk, T. (1988). News as discourse. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
80.
van Dijk, T. (1991a). Racism and the press. London: Routledge.
81.
van Dijk, T. (1991b). The interdisciplinary study of news as discourse. In K. Bruhn-Jensen & N. Jankowksi (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative methods in mass communication research (pp. 108-120). London: Routledge.
82.
van Dijk, T. (1992). Racism and argumentation: “Race riot” rhetoric in tabloid editorials. In F. H. van Eemeren (Ed.), Argumentation illuminated (pp. 242-259). Dordrecht: Foris.
83.
van Dijk, T. (1993). Elite discourse and racism. London: Sage.
84.
van Dijk, T. (1995). Discourse analysis as ideology analysis. In C. Schäffner & A. Wenden (Eds.), Language and pace (pp. 17-33). Aldershot: Dartmouth.
85.
van Dijk, T. (1996). Opinions and ideologies in editorials. International Symposium of Critical Discourse Analysis, Language, Social Life and Critical Thought, Athens.
86.
van Dijk, T. (1998a). Ideology: A multidisciplinary approach. London: Sage.
87.
van Dijk, T. (1998b). Opinions and ideologies in the press. In A. Bell & P. Garrett (Eds.), Approaches to media discourse (pp. 21-63). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
88.
World Nuclear Association. (2004, January). Iraq, North Korea & Iran—Implications for safeguards: Appendix to safeguards briefing paper. Retrieved March 19, 2006, from http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf73.htm
89.
Zak, C. (2002). Iran’s nuclear policy and the IAEA, An evaluation of program 93+2 (Military Research Paper No. 3). Washington, DC: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy.
