A growing body of literature in the field of public relations has delved into the topic of public diplomacy; this growing interest in public diplomacy is juxtaposed in the backdrop of the recent increase in U.S. public diplomacy efforts in the Middle East. Based on a critical analysis of U.S. pubic diplomacy strategies in the Middle East, the author argues that the traditional models of public diplomacy continue to circulate in current public diplomacy efforts. Drawing on a ritual model of communication and building on the theory of communicative action, the author articulates the need to apply a culture-centered approach in conducting international public diplomacy.
American Embassy in Iraq. (1952). Proposed information program for Iraq. Baghdad, Iraq: Author.
2.
Amr, H. (2004). The need to communicate: How to improve U.S. public diplomacy with the Islamic world. Washington, DC: Saban Center for Middle East Policy at the Brookings Institution.
3.
Anderson, R., Cissna, K. N., & Arnett, R. C. (Eds.). (1994). The reach of dialogue: Confirmation, voice, and community. Creskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
4.
Battle, J. (2002). U.S. propaganda in the Middle East: The early Cold War version. National Security archive electronic briefing book 78. Available at www.gwu.edu/%7Ensarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB78/essay.htm
5.
Beers, C. (2002a, November 15). Address to the Helsinki Women’s Business Leaders Summit. Washington, DC: Georgetown University. Available at www.state.gov/r/us/16710.htm
6.
Beers, C. (2002b, October 17). Public service and public diplomacy. Address at The Citadel, The Military Academy of South Carolina, Charleston. Available at www.state.gov/r/us/15912.htm
7.
Beers, C. (2003a, January 16). Interview on CNN’s NewsNight with Aaron Brown. Washington, D.C. Available at www.state.gov/r/us/16735.htm
8.
Beers, C. (2003b, February 11). Remarks to the Advisory Committee for Voluntary Foreign Aid, National Press Club, Washington, D.C. Available at www.state.gov/r/us/18260.htm
9.
Botan, C. (1997). Ethics in strategic communication campaigns: The case for a new approach to public relations. Journal of Business Communication, 34, 187-201.
10.
Botan, C., & Taylor, M. (2003). Public relations: State of the field. Journal of Communication, 54, 645-661.
11.
Broadcasting Board of Governors. (2002). Marrying the mission to the market: Strategic plan (2002-2007). Available at www.bbg.gov/bbq_plan.cfm
12.
Buber, M. (1958). I and thou. New York: Macmillan.
13.
Djerejian, E. (2003). Changing minds, winning peace: A new strategic direction for U.S. public diplomacy in the Arab and Muslim world[Report of the Advisory Group on Public Diplomacy for the Arab and Muslim World submitted to the Committee on Appropriations, U.S. House of Representatives, Washington, DC]. Available at www.state.gov/documents/organization/24882.pdf
14.
Dutta-Bergman, M. (2004). The unheard voices of Santalis: Communicating about health from the margins of India. Communication Theory, 14, 34-58.
15.
Dutta-Bergman, M. (2005). Civil society and communication: Not so civil after all. Journal of Public Relations Research, 17(3), 267-289.
16.
Foreign Service of the United States of America. (1951). Notes on expanded program for Iraq. Tehran, Iran: American Embassy.
17.
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Seabury Press.
18.
Freire, P. (1973). Education for critical consciousness. New York: Continuum.
19.
Friedman, M. (2004). Martin Buber: The life of dialogue. New York: Routledge.
20.
Funding for public diplomacy. Statement before the Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, and State of the House Appropriations Committee, (2002) (testimony of Charlotte Beers). Available at www.state.gov/r/us/9778.htm.
21.
Gandhi, M. (1936). Harijan. Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India: Navajivan Press.
22.
General Accounting Office. (2003, September). U.S. international broadcasting: New strategic approach focuses on reaching large audiences but lacks measurable program objectives (Report to the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, GAO-03-951). Washington, DC: Author.
23.
Grunig, J. E. (1989). Symmetrical presuppositions as a framework for public relations theory. In C. H. Botan & V. Hazleton (Eds.), Public relations theory (pp. 17-44). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
24.
Grunig, J. E. (Ed.). (1992). Excellence in public relations and communication management. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
25.
Habermas, J. (1979). Communication and the evolution of society. Boston: Beacon.
26.
Habermas, J. (1984). The theory of communicative action, Vol. 1: Reason and the rationalization of society. Boston: Beacon.
27.
Habermas, J. (1987). The theory of communicative action, Vol. 2: A critique of functionalist reason. Boston: Beacon.
28.
Hiebert, R. E. (1966). Courier to the crowd: The story of Ivy Lee and the development of public relations. Ames: Iowa State University Press.
29.
Howe, R. L. (1963). The miracle of dialogue. New York: Floyd Press.
30.
Jacobson, T. L. (2003). Participatory communication for social change: The relevance of the theory of communicative action. In P. Kalbfleisch (Ed.), Communication yearbook 27 (pp. 87-124). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
31.
Jacobson, T. L., & Storey, J. D. (2004). Development communication and participation: Applying Habermas to a case study of population programs in Nepal. Communication Theory, 14, 99-121.
32.
Johannesen, R. L. (1971). The emerging concept of communication as dialogue. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 57, 373-382.
33.
Kent, M. L., & Taylor, M. (2002). Toward a dialogic theory of public relations. Public Relations Review, 28, 21-37.
34.
Kripalani, K. (2000). Mahatma Gandhi: All men are brothers. New York: Continuum.
35.
Kunczik, M. (2003). Transnational public relations by foreign governments. In K. Sriramesh & D. Vercic (Eds.), Handbook of global public relations (pp. 399-424). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
36.
Laswell, H. D. (1942). Communications research and politics. In D. Waples (Ed.), Print, radio, film in a democracy (pp. 100-121). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
37.
Matson, F. W., & Montagu, A. (1967). The human dialogue. New York: Freedom Press.
38.
National Security Council. (1952). United States objectives and policies with respect to the Arab states and Israel. Washington, DC: Author.
39.
National Security Council. (1954). United States objectives and policies with respect to the Near East. Washington, DC: Office of the President.
40.
Operations Coordinating Board. (1955). Detailed development of actions relating to the Near East. Washington, DC: Author.
41.
Pearson, R. (1989). A theory of public relations ethics. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio University, Athens.
42.
Signitzer, B., & Coombs, T. (1992). Public relations and public diplomacy: Conceptual convergence. Public Relations Review, 18, 137-147.
43.
Sriramesh, K. (1992). The impact of societal culture on public relations: An ethnographic study of south Indian organizations. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park.
44.
Sriramesh, K. (1999, August 4-7). The models of public relations in India. Top faculty paper presented to the PR Division, Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, New Orleans, LA.
45.
Sriramesh, K., & White, J. (1992). Societal culture and public relations. In J. E. Grunig (Ed.), Excellence in public relations and communication management (pp. 597-614). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
46.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
47.
Taylor, M. (2000a). Media relations in Bosnia: A role for public relations in building civil society. Journal of Public Relations Research, 26(1), 1-14.
48.
Taylor, M. (2000b). Toward a public relations approach to nation building. Journal of Public Relations Research, 12(2), 179-210.
49.
Tuch, H. N. (1990). Communicating with the world: U.S. public diplomacy overseas. New York: St. Martin’s.
50.
U.S. Agency for International Development. (1999). U.S. overseas loans and grants. Washington, DC: Author.
51.
U.S. Agency for International Development. (2002). Foreign aid in the national interest. Washington, DC: Author.
52.
Wang, J., & Chang, T. K. (2004). Strategic public diplomacy and local press: How a high profile “head-of-state” visit was covered in America’s heartland. Public Relations Review, 30, 11-24.
53.
Wells, E. C. (1953). Report on the use of anti-Soviet material within Iraq during period covered by last two years. www.gwu.edu/%7Ensarchiv/NSAEBB
