Animal visitation programs have been used in a wide variety of clinical settings with predominantly positive outcomes reported anecdotally. However, there is also a growing body of research investigating the effects of these interventions. Developing and conducting rigorous studies of animal interventions can be a complex and challenging process. The purpose of this article is to identify and discuss several issues arising with this type of research and to posit suggestions for avoiding pitfalls.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Allen, K. , Blascovich, J., Tomaka, J., & Kelsey, R. (1991). Presence of human friend and pet dogs as moderators of autonomic responses to stress in women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(4), 582-589.
2.
Anderson, W. , Reid, C., & Jennings, G. (1992). Pet ownership and risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Medical Journal of Australia, 157(5), 298-301.
3.
Anonymous . (1992). Patients’ best friend? Hospital dogs raise spirits, not infection rates. Hospital Infection Control, 12(12), 162-164.
4.
Baun, M. , Bergstrom, N., Langston, N., & Thoma, L. (1984). Physiological effects of human/companion animal bonding. Nursing Research, 33(3), 126-129.
5.
Berryman, J. , Howells, K., & Lloyd-Evans, M. (1985). Pet owner attitudes to pets and people: A psychological study. Veterinary Record, 17, 659-661.
6.
Beyersdorfer, P. , & Birkenhauer, D. (1990). The therapeutic use of pets on an Alzheimer’s unit. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Care and Related Disorders & Research, 5(1), 13-17.
7.
Blalock, J. E. , & Smith, E. M. (1981). Human leukocyte interferon (HuIFN-alpha): Potent endorphin-like opiod activity. Biochemistry Biophysical Research Communications, 101, 472-478.
8.
Brickel, C. (1979). The therapeutic roles of cat mascots with a hospital-based geriatric population: A staff survey. The Gerontologist, 19(4), 368-372.
9.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee . (2001). Draft guideline for environmental infection control in healthcare facilities. Retrieve from http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/hip/enviro/env_guide_draft.pdf
10.
Coe, C. , Lubach, G., & Ershler, W. (1989). Immunological consequences of maternal separation in infant primates. In M. Lewis & J. Worobey (Eds.), Infant stress and coping (pp. 65-92). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
11.
DeSchriver, M. , & Riddick, C. (1991). Effects of watching aquariums on elders’ stress. Anthrozoos, 7(1), 44-48.
12.
Duncan, S. L. (2000). APIC state of the art report: The implications of service animals in health care settings. Journal of Infection Control, 28(2), 170-180.
13.
Fick, K. (1993). The influence of an animal on social interactions of nursing home residents in a group setting. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 47(6), 529-534.
14.
Folse, E. , Minder, C., Aycock, M., & Santana, R. (1994). Animal-assisted therapy and depression in adult college students. Anthrozoos, 7(3), 188-194.
15.
Francis, G. , Turner, J., & Johnson, S. (1985). Domestic animal visitation as therapy with adult home residents. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 22(3), 201-206.
16.
Friedmann, E. (1990). The value of pets for health and recovery. Proceedings of the British Small Animal Veterinary Association, 20, 9-17.
17.
Friedmann, E. , Katcher, A., Lynch, J., & Thomas, S. (1980). Animal companions and one-year survival of patients after discharge from a coronary care unit. Public Health Reports, 95(4), 307-312.
18.
Friedmann, E. , Katcher, A., Thomas, S., Lynch, J., &. Messent, P. (1983). Social interaction and blood pressure: Influence of animal companions. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 171(8), 461-465.
19.
Friedmann, E. , Locker, B., & Lockwood, R. (1993). Perception of animals and cardiovascular responses during verbalization with an animal present. Anthrozoos, 7(3), 115-134.
20.
Friedmann, E. , & Thomas, S. (1995). Pet ownership, social support, and one-year survival after acute myocardial infarction in the cardiac arrhythmia suppression trial (CAST). American Journal of Cardiology, 76, 1213-1217.
21.
Garrity, T. , Stallones, L., Marx, M., & Johnson, T. (1989). Pet ownership and attachment as supportive factors in the health of the elderly. Anthrozoos, 3(1), 35-44.
22.
Greene, C. E. (1998). Immunocompromised people and pets. In C. E. Greene (Ed.), Infectious diseases of the dog and cat (2nd ed., pp. 710-716). Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.
23.
Hines, L. M. (1996). Perspectives on animal-assisted activities and therapy. In Standards of practice for animal-assisted activities and therapy (p. 3). Renton, WA: Delta Society.
24.
Johnson, R. A. , & Meadows, R. L. (2000a). Promoting wellness through nurse-veterinary collaboration. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 22(7), 773-775.
25.
Johnson, R. A. , & Meadows, R. L. (2000b). Animal-assisted activity and anxiety among cancer patients undergoing radiation therapy. Unpublished funded grant application.
26.
Johnson, R. A. , & Meadows, R. L. (2001). Ethnic elders, pet attachment and health. Unpublished manuscript.
27.
Jorgenson, J. (1997). Therapeutic uses of companion animals in health care. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 29, 249-254.
28.
Khan, M. A. , & Farrag, N. (2000). Animal-assisted activity and infection control implications in a healthcare setting. Journal of Hospital Infection, 46, 4-11.
29.
Kongable, L. , Buckwalter, K., & Stolley, J. (1989). The effects of pet therapy on the social behavior of institutionalized Alzheimer’s clients. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 3(4), 191-198.
30.
Lago, D. , Delaney, M., Miller, M., & Grill, C. (1989). Companion animals, attitudes toward pets, and health outcomes among the elderly: A long-term follow-up. Anthrozoos, 3(1), 25-34.
31.
Lerner-Durjava, L. (1994). Pet visitation, is it an infection control issue?American Journal of Infection Control, 22, 112.
32.
Livnat, S. , Felton, S., Carlson, S., Bellinger, D., & Felton, D. L. (1985). Involvement of peripheral and central catecolamine systems in neural-immune interactions. Journal of Neuroimmunology, 10, 5-30.
33.
Marcus, L. C. , & Marcus, E. (1998). Nosocomial zoonoses. New England Journal of Medicine, 338(11), 757-759.
34.
Neer, C. , Dorn, R., & Grayson, I. (1987). Dog interaction with persons receiving institutional geriatric care. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 191(3), 300-304.
35.
Odendaal, J. (1999). A physiological basis for animal-facilitated psychotherapy. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pretoria, South Africa.
36.
Odendaal, J. , & Lehmann, S. (2000). The role of phenylethylamine during positive human-dog interaction. ACTA Veterinaria, 69(3), 183-188.
37.
Owen, O. G. (2001). Paws for thought. Nursing Times, 97(9), 22-23.
38.
Riley, V. (1981). Psychoneuroendocrine influences on immunocompetence and neoplasia. Science, 212, 1100-1109.
39.
Serpell, J. (1986). Public fears about the threat of disease infection from animals are largely irrational. People-Animals-Environment, 4(1), 4.
40.
Straatman, I. , Hanson, E., Endenburg, N., & Mol, J. (1997). The influence of a dog on male students during a stressor. Anthrozoos, 10(4), 191-197.
41.
Stryler-Gordon, R. , Beall, N., & Anderson, R. K. (1985). Facts and fiction: Health risks associated with pets in nursing homes. Journal of the Delta Society, 2(1), 74-75.
42.
Taylor, E. , Maser, S., Yee, J., & Gonzalez, S. (1993). Effect of animals on eye contact and vocalizations of elderly residents in a long term care facility. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Geriatrics, 11(4), 61-71.
43.
Triebenbacher, S. (1998). Pets as transitional objects: Their role in children’s emotional development. Psychological Reports, 82(1), 191-200.
44.
Weber, D. J. , & Rutala, W. A. (1999). Epidemiology and prevention of nosocomial infections associated with animals in the hospital. In C. G. Mayhall (Ed.), Hospital epidemiology and infection control (2nd ed., pp. 1399-1421). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
45.
Winkler, A. , Fairnie, H., Gericevich, F., & Long, M. (1989). The impact of a resident dog on an institution for the elderly: Effects on perceptions and social interaction. The Gerontologist, 29(2), 216-223.
46.
Zasloff, R. , & Kidd, A. (1994). Loneliness and pet ownership among single women. Psychological Reports, 75(2), 747-752.
